Lesson 84 Latinum Institute Botanical Latin Reading Course
Latin Lesson: bellum -ī n. (war)
Part A (Interleaved English and Latin Text)
84.1 Bellum war inter between plantās plants prō for lūce light et and nutrimentīs nutrients semper always geritur is waged
84.2 Hoc this bellum war tacitē silently sine without sanguine blood committitur is joined
84.3 Botanicī botanists saepe often dē about bellō war inter between speciēs species disputant argue
84.4 Arbōrēs trees quoque also bellum war contrā against herbās herbs gerunt wage
84.5 In in bellō war plantārum of plants victōria victory ad to fortiōrēs stronger ones pertinet belongs
84.6 Vītis vine bellum war contrā against arbōrem tree gerit wages dum while ascendit it climbs
84.7 Praesidium defense contrā against bellum war herbarum of weeds necessārium necessary est is
84.8 Antōnius Antonius in in librō book suō his bellum war fungōrum of fungi contrā against plantās plants dēscrībit describes
84.9 Post after longum long bellum war quaedam certain speciēs species exstinguuntur become extinct
84.10 Rādīcēs roots sub under terrā earth bellum war prō for spatiō space gerunt wage
84.11 Neglēctā neglected hortī of garden cūrā care bellum war herbarum of weeds oritur arises
84.12 Botanicī botanists bellum war inter between plantās plants observant observe et and studēre to study volunt they want
84.13 In in antīquā ancient litterātūrā literature bellum war saepe often cum with nātūrā nature comparātur is compared
84.14 Fōlia leaves plantārum of plants bellum war per through substantiās substances toxicās toxic gerunt wage
84.15 Contrā against insectōrum of insects bellum war plantae plants spīnās thorns et and venēna poisons ēvolvērunt developed
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Part B (Complete Natural Sentences)
84.1 Bellum inter plantās prō lūce et nutrimentīs semper geritur. War is always waged between plants for light and nutrients.
84.2 Hoc bellum tacitē sine sanguine committitur. This war is joined silently without blood.
84.3 Botanicī saepe dē bellō inter speciēs disputant. Botanists often argue about the war between species.
84.4 Arbōrēs quoque bellum contrā herbās gerunt. Trees also wage war against herbs.
84.5 In bellō plantārum victōria ad fortiōrēs pertinet. In the war of plants, victory belongs to the stronger ones.
84.6 Vītis bellum contrā arbōrem gerit dum ascendit. The vine wages war against the tree while it climbs.
84.7 Praesidium contrā bellum herbarum necessārium est. Defense against the war of weeds is necessary.
84.8 Antōnius in librō suō bellum fungōrum contrā plantās dēscrībit. Antonius describes the war of fungi against plants in his book.
84.9 Post longum bellum quaedam speciēs exstinguuntur. After a long war, certain species become extinct.
84.10 Rādīcēs sub terrā bellum prō spatiō gerunt. Roots wage war for space under the earth.
84.11 Neglēctā hortī cūrā bellum herbarum oritur. When garden care is neglected, a war of weeds arises.
84.12 Botanicī bellum inter plantās observant et studēre volunt. Botanists observe the war between plants and want to study it.
84.13 In antīquā litterātūrā bellum saepe cum nātūrā comparātur. In ancient literature, war is often compared with nature.
84.14 Fōlia plantārum bellum per substantiās toxicās gerunt. The leaves of plants wage war through toxic substances.
84.15 Contrā insectōrum bellum plantae spīnās et venēna ēvolvērunt. Against the war of insects, plants have developed thorns and poisons.
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Part C (Latin Text Only)
84.1 Bellum inter plantās prō lūce et nutrimentīs semper geritur.
84.2 Hoc bellum tacitē sine sanguine committitur.
84.3 Botanicī saepe dē bellō inter speciēs disputant.
84.4 Arbōrēs quoque bellum contrā herbās gerunt.
84.5 In bellō plantārum victōria ad fortiōrēs pertinet.
84.6 Vītis bellum contrā arbōrem gerit dum ascendit.
84.7 Praesidium contrā bellum herbarum necessārium est.
84.8 Antōnius in librō suō bellum fungōrum contrā plantās dēscrībit.
84.9 Post longum bellum quaedam speciēs exstinguuntur.
84.10 Rādīcēs sub terrā bellum prō spatiō gerunt.
84.11 Neglēctā hortī cūrā bellum herbarum oritur.
84.12 Botanicī bellum inter plantās observant et studēre volunt.
84.13 In antīquā litterātūrā bellum saepe cum nātūrā comparātur.
84.14 Fōlia plantārum bellum per substantiās toxicās gerunt.
84.15 Contrā insectōrum bellum plantae spīnās et venēna ēvolvērunt.
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Part D (Grammar Explanation)
The noun "bellum, bellī" has several important features for English speakers learning Latin:
Form and Declension:
Second declension neuter noun
Nominative/Accusative singular: bellum
Genitive singular: bellī
Dative/Ablative singular: bellō
Nominative/Accusative plural: bella
Genitive plural: bellōrum
Dative/Ablative plural: bellīs
Grammatical Usage:
As subject (nominative): "Bellum geritur" (War is waged)
As direct object (accusative): "Bellum gerunt" (They wage war)
With prepositions (typically ablative): "In bellō" (In war)
In genitive constructions: "Tempus bellī" (Time of war)
Common Verbs Used with "bellum":
gerere (to wage): "bellum gerere" (to wage war)
facere (to make): "bellum facere" (to make war)
īnferre (to bring in): "bellum īnferre" (to bring war upon)
parāre (to prepare): "bellum parāre" (to prepare for war)
committere (to join): "bellum committere" (to join battle, engage in war)
Idiomatic Expressions:
"bellum indīcere" (to declare war)
"bellum cīvīle" (civil war)
"bellum nāvāle" (naval war)
"ars bellī" (the art of war)
"bellum omnium contrā omnēs" (war of all against all)
In Botanical/Scientific Context:
In modern scientific Latin, "bellum" is used metaphorically to describe competition between species or plants
Often combined with "contrā" to indicate opposition: "bellum contrā herbās" (war against weeds)
Used with "prō" to indicate competition for resources: "bellum prō lūce" (war for light)
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Part E (Cultural Context)
For English speakers learning Latin, understanding "bellum" requires both classical and botanical cultural context:
Classical Roman Context:
War was central to Roman society and expansion
Romans distinguished between "bellum iūstum" (just war) and unjustified conflicts
The temple of Janus had its doors opened during war and closed in peace
Wars were formally declared through specific religious rituals
Major works like Caesar's "De Bellō Gallicō" documented Roman campaigns
In Scientific/Botanical Literature:
Post-Classical Latin adopted "bellum" as a metaphor for competition in nature
Linnaeus and early botanists used martial terminology to describe plant interactions
The concept of "bellum omnium contra omnes" (war of all against all) from Hobbes was applied to plant ecology
Darwin's "struggle for existence" parallels the Roman concept of "bellum"
Modern botanical Latin maintains this metaphorical usage in scientific descriptions
Conceptual Evolution:
From literal human conflict to metaphorical struggle in nature
Now commonly used in ecological discussions of competition
Reflected in terms like "allelopathy" (chemical warfare between plants)
Employed in discussions of invasive species and natural selection
Used to describe defensive adaptations in plants
Modern Relevance:
The metaphor of "war" continues in modern scientific literature
Helps conceptualize complex ecological relationships
English terms like "biological arms race" derive from this tradition
Reflects the ongoing influence of Latin terminology in science
Connects ancient Roman concepts to contemporary scientific understanding
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Part F (Literary Citation)
From Pliny's "Naturalis Historia" (Book 17, Chapter 37):
Part F-A (Interleaved Text)
Nātūrā nature omnium of all things est is pugnācissima most combative. Arbōrēs trees quidem indeed et both contrā against feritātem wildness certant struggle et and contrā against hominēs men bellum war gerunt wage quandō when multae many ex from hīs these spīnīs with thorns mūniuntur are fortified contrā against noxia harmful animālia animals.
Part F-B (Complete Translation)
"Nātūrā omnium est pugnācissima. Arbōrēs quidem et contrā feritātem certant et contrā hominēs bellum gerunt quandō multae ex hīs spīnīs mūniuntur contrā noxia animālia."
"The nature of all things is most combative. Trees indeed both struggle against wildness and wage war against humans when many of them are fortified with thorns against harmful animals."
Part F-C (Literary Analysis)
Pliny uses "bellum" here to personify plants, attributing to them intentional warfare against humans and animals. This reflects the Roman view of nature as an active, even hostile force. The passage illustrates how Roman natural philosophy understood plant defenses as a form of conflict.
Part F-D (Grammatical Notes)
"nātūrā" is in the nominative case as the subject
"pugnācissima" is a superlative adjective agreeing with "nātūrā"
"bellum gerunt" uses the common phrase for "wage war"
"contrā" + accusative construction appears three times to indicate opposition
"quandō" introduces a temporal clause explaining when the "war" occurs
"mūniuntur" is passive voice, showing how trees are equipped for defense
"spīnīs" is ablative of means, showing how the defense is accomplished
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Genre Section: Scientific Treatise on Plant Competition
Part A (Interleaved English and Latin Text)
84.16 Dē about Bellō war Inter between Plantās plants in in Silvis forests Tropicīs tropical
84.17 Caelum sky/canopy silvae of forest tropicae tropical scaenam scene bellī of war perpetuī perpetual praebet provides
84.18 Plantae plants omnēs all ad toward lūcem light sōlis of sun pugnant fight et and bellum war sine without intermissiōne interruption gerunt wage
84.19 Vītēs vines magnae great bellum war āstūtum clever gerunt wage dum while aliēnīs of others truncīs on trunks ascendunt they climb ut so that lūcem light attingant they may reach
84.20 Arbōrēs trees altissimae tallest victōrēs victors in in longō long bellō war sunt are et and corōnās crowns suās their in in lūmine light plēnō full expandunt expand
84.21 Fungi fungi quoque also bellum war subterrāneum underground gerunt wage contrā against rādīcēs roots plantārum of plants et and nutrimentīs nutrients ipsīs themselves vescuntur feed
84.22 In in bellō war contrā against fungōs fungi plantae plants substantiās substances fungicīdās fungicidal prōdūcunt produce quibus with which sē themselves dēfendunt they defend
84.23 Secundum according to Darwinium Darwin bellum war nātūrae of nature ad to sēlectiōnem selection nātūrālem natural dūcit leads et and speciēs species fortiōrēs stronger facit makes
84.24 Arbōrēs trees mortuae dead cadentēs falling in in silvā forest novum new bellum war prō for spatiō space inter between plantās plants iuniōrēs younger incitant incite
84.25 Quaedam certain plantae plants bellum war per through substantiās substances chēmicās chemical gerunt wage quae which terram soil circum around sē themselves venēnō with poison inficiunt infect
84.26 Hoc this bellum war chēmicum chemical inter between plantās plants ā by scientistīs scientists modērnīs modern "allelopathia" "allelopathy" vocātur is called
84.27 Tempore in time siccitātis of drought bellum war prō for aquā water inter between omnēs all plantās plants fit becomes atrōcissimum most fierce
84.28 Insecta insects multa many in in hōc this bellō war perpetuō perpetual partēs roles agunt play dum while quaedam some plantās plants dēfendunt defend et and alia others oppugnant attack
84.29 Botanicī botanists bellum war inter between speciēs species invāsīvās invasive et and nātīvās native in in multīs many regiōnibus regions nunc now observant observe
84.30 Victōria victory in in bellō war plantārum of plants nōn not semper always ad to speciēs species maximās largest vel or validissimās strongest pertinet belongs sed but saepe often ad to adaptābilissimās most adaptable
Part B (Complete Natural Sentences)
84.16 Dē Bellō Inter Plantās in Silvis Tropicīs. About the War Between Plants in Tropical Forests.
84.17 Caelum silvae tropicae scaenam bellī perpetuī praebet. The canopy of the tropical forest provides the scene of perpetual war.
84.18 Plantae omnēs ad lūcem sōlis pugnant et bellum sine intermissiōne gerunt. All plants fight toward the sunlight and wage war without interruption.
84.19 Vītēs magnae bellum āstūtum gerunt dum aliēnīs truncīs ascendunt ut lūcem attingant. Great vines wage a clever war while they climb on the trunks of others so that they may reach the light.
84.20 Arbōrēs altissimae victōrēs in longō bellō sunt et corōnās suās in lūmine plēnō expandunt. The tallest trees are victors in the long war and expand their crowns in full light.
84.21 Fungi quoque bellum subterrāneum gerunt contrā rādīcēs plantārum et nutrimentīs ipsīs vescuntur. Fungi also wage an underground war against the roots of plants and feed on the nutrients themselves.
84.22 In bellō contrā fungōs plantae substantiās fungicīdās prōdūcunt quibus sē dēfendunt. In the war against fungi, plants produce fungicidal substances with which they defend themselves.
84.23 Secundum Darwinium bellum nātūrae ad sēlectiōnem nātūrālem dūcit et speciēs fortiōrēs facit. According to Darwin, the war of nature leads to natural selection and makes species stronger.
84.24 Arbōrēs mortuae cadentēs in silvā novum bellum prō spatiō inter plantās iuniōrēs incitant. Dead trees falling in the forest incite a new war for space among younger plants.
84.25 Quaedam plantae bellum per substantiās chēmicās gerunt quae terram circum sē venēnō inficiunt. Certain plants wage war through chemical substances which infect the soil around themselves with poison.
84.26 Hoc bellum chēmicum inter plantās ā scientistīs modērnīs "allelopathia" vocātur. This chemical war between plants is called "allelopathy" by modern scientists.
84.27 Tempore siccitātis bellum prō aquā inter omnēs plantās fit atrōcissimum. In time of drought, the war for water among all plants becomes most fierce.
84.28 Insecta multa in hōc bellō perpetuō partēs agunt dum quaedam plantās dēfendunt et alia oppugnant. Many insects play roles in this perpetual war while some defend plants and others attack them.
84.29 Botanicī bellum inter speciēs invāsīvās et nātīvās in multīs regiōnibus nunc observant. Botanists now observe the war between invasive and native species in many regions.
84.30 Victōria in bellō plantārum nōn semper ad speciēs maximās vel validissimās pertinet sed saepe ad adaptābilissimās. Victory in the war of plants does not always belong to the largest or strongest species but often to the most adaptable.
Part C (Latin Text Only)
84.16 Dē Bellō Inter Plantās in Silvis Tropicīs.
84.17 Caelum silvae tropicae scaenam bellī perpetuī praebet.
84.18 Plantae omnēs ad lūcem sōlis pugnant et bellum sine intermissiōne gerunt.
84.19 Vītēs magnae bellum āstūtum gerunt dum aliēnīs truncīs ascendunt ut lūcem attingant.
84.20 Arbōrēs altissimae victōrēs in longō bellō sunt et corōnās suās in lūmine plēnō expandunt.
84.21 Fungi quoque bellum subterrāneum gerunt contrā rādīcēs plantārum et nutrimentīs ipsīs vescuntur.
84.22 In bellō contrā fungōs plantae substantiās fungicīdās prōdūcunt quibus sē dēfendunt.
84.23 Secundum Darwinium bellum nātūrae ad sēlectiōnem nātūrālem dūcit et speciēs fortiōrēs facit.
84.24 Arbōrēs mortuae cadentēs in silvā novum bellum prō spatiō inter plantās iuniōrēs incitant.
84.25 Quaedam plantae bellum per substantiās chēmicās gerunt quae terram circum sē venēnō inficiunt.
84.26 Hoc bellum chēmicum inter plantās ā scientistīs modērnīs "allelopathia" vocātur.
84.27 Tempore siccitātis bellum prō aquā inter omnēs plantās fit atrōcissimum.
84.28 Insecta multa in hōc bellō perpetuō partēs agunt dum quaedam plantās dēfendunt et alia oppugnant.
84.29 Botanicī bellum inter speciēs invāsīvās et nātīvās in multīs regiōnibus nunc observant.
84.30 Victōria in bellō plantārum nōn semper ad speciēs maximās vel validissimās pertinet sed saepe ad adaptābilissimās.
Part D (Grammar Explanation with Concrete Examples)
In this scientific treatise on plant competition, we find several advanced grammatical constructions that expand on the basic uses of "bellum":
Scientific Terminology:
"bellum chēmicum" (chemical warfare): Technical compound noun phrases
"bellum subterrāneum" (underground war): Adjectival modification
"allelopathia" (allelopathy): Greek-derived scientific terminology
"speciēs invāsīvās/nātīvās" (invasive/native species): Modern biological classification
Purpose Clauses:
"...ut lūcem attingant" (so that they may reach the light): Purpose clause with subjunctive
Compare with: "...ut vincant" (so that they may conquer)
Extended Metaphors:
"victōrēs in longō bellō" (victors in the long war): Extending military metaphor to ecological contexts
"bellum āstūtum gerunt" (wage a clever war): Attribution of strategy to plant behavior
Ablative Constructions:
"substantiās fungicīdās prōdūcunt quibus sē dēfendunt" (produce fungicidal substances with which they defend themselves): Relative clause with instrumental ablative
"tempore siccitātis" (in time of drought): Ablative of time when
"venēnō inficiunt" (infect with poison): Ablative of means
Descriptive Genitive:
"bellī perpetuī" (of perpetual war): Genitive with adjective
"scaenam bellī" (scene of war): Objective genitive
Attributive Adjectives and Superlatives:
"arbōrēs altissimae" (tallest trees): Superlative adjective
"bellum atrōcissimum" (most fierce war): Superlative adjective
"speciēs adaptābilissimās" (most adaptable species): Modern scientific superlative
Typical Scientific Latin Word Order:
Subject-object-verb patterns common in post-classical scientific Latin
Use of participles to create complex sentences: "cadentēs" (falling)
Attribution patterns: "ā scientistīs modērnīs vocātur" (is called by modern scientists)
Specialized Vocabulary:
Classical Latin adapted for modern scientific concepts
Use of proper nouns: "Darwinium" (Darwin)
Technical terms: "sēlectiōnem nātūrālem" (natural selection)
These grammatical features show how Latin evolved to serve the needs of botanical and scientific discourse while retaining its classical grammar structure.
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