World — The Earthly Sphere and Human Domain

INTRODUCTION

Welcome to Lesson 79 of the Elizabethan English course. This lesson explores world (/wɜːrld/ in Original Pronunciation), one of the most philosophically rich words in Shakespeare’s vocabulary. In the Early Modern period (c. 1550–1650), world carried layers of meaning that modern usage has partly lost: the terrestrial sphere, the domain of human affairs, mortal existence as opposed to spiritual eternity, and the social realm of fashion and reputation.

Course Index:

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FAQ: What does “world” mean in Elizabethan English?

In Elizabethan English, world (spelled variously as world, worlde, or vvorld) functions primarily as a noun denoting the earth, human society, mortal life, or a great quantity (”a world of troubles”). Shakespeare employed world over 900 times across his works, using it to invoke theatrical metaphors (”all the world’s a stage”), philosophical meditations on mortality, and explorations of social ambition.

Pronunciation Note (Original Pronunciation): This lesson employs reconstructed Early Modern English pronunciation following David Crystal’s scholarship. Key features include: the -tion suffix pronounced as /sɪən/ rather than Modern English /ʃən/; rhotic /r/ sounded in all positions; and vowel values still transitioning through the Great Vowel Shift. The word world itself was pronounced /wɜːrld/ with a clearly sounded /r/.

Key Takeaways:

• World functions as both concrete noun (the earth) and abstract noun (mortal existence, society)

• Elizabethan world frequently contrasts with heaven in theological contexts

• The theatrical metaphor of “world as stage” pervades Shakespeare’s usage

• Period pronunciation features rhotic /r/ and distinct vowel qualities

• Worldly and worldling were common derivations for secular concerns

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SECTION A: INTERLINEAR CONSTRUED TEXT

79.1a All the world’s a stage 79.1b All (/ɔːl/) all the (/ðə/) the world’s (/wɜːrldz/) world-POSS a (/ə/) a stage (/steɪdʒ/) stage

79.2a What a world of troubles thou hast seen 79.2b What (/hwɒt/) what a (/ə/) a world (/wɜːrld/) world of (/ɒv/) of troubles (/ˈtrʊblz/) troubles thou (/ðaʊ/) thou hast (/hæst/) have-2SG seen (/siːn/) seen

79.3a The world doth turn upon fortune’s wheel 79.3b The (/ðə/) the world (/wɜːrld/) world doth (/dʊθ/) does-AUX turn (/tɜːrn/) turn upon (/əˈpɒn/) upon fortune’s (/ˈfɔːrtʃənz/) fortune-POSS wheel (/hwiːl/) wheel

79.4a I hold the world but as the world 79.4b I (/ʌɪ/) I hold (/hoʊld/) hold the (/ðə/) the world (/wɜːrld/) world but (/bʊt/) only as (/æz/) as the (/ðə/) the world (/wɜːrld/) world

79.5a This wide world containeth many wonders 79.5b This (/ðɪs/) this wide (/wʌɪd/) wide world (/wɜːrld/) world containeth (/kənˈteɪnəθ/) contains-3SG many (/ˈmɛni/) many wonders (/ˈwʊndərz/) wonders

79.6a Thy world and mine are sunder’d quite 79.6b Thy (/ðʌɪ/) thy-POSS world (/wɜːrld/) world and (/ænd/) and mine (/mʌɪn/) mine are (/ɑːr/) are sunder’d (/ˈsʊndərd/) sundered quite (/kwʌɪt/) completely

79.7a The fashion of this world passeth away 79.7b The (/ðə/) the fashion (/ˈfæʃɪən/) fashion of (/ɒv/) of this (/ðɪs/) this world (/wɜːrld/) world passeth (/ˈpæsəθ/) passes-3SG away (/əˈweɪ/) away

79.8a No worldly treasure shall endure beyond the grave 79.8b No (/noʊ/) no worldly (/ˈwɜːrldli/) worldly-ADJ treasure (/ˈtrɛʒər/) treasure shall (/ʃæl/) shall-FUT endure (/ɪnˈdjʊər/) endure beyond (/bɪˈjɒnd/) beyond the (/ðə/) the grave (/greɪv/) grave

79.9a How weary stale flat and unprofitable seem to me all the uses of this world 79.9b How (/haʊ/) how weary (/ˈwɪəri/) weary stale (/steɪl/) stale flat (/flæt/) flat and (/ænd/) and unprofitable (/ʊnˈprɒfɪtəbl/) unprofitable seem (/siːm/) seem to (/tuː/) to me (/miː/) me all (/ɔːl/) all the (/ðə/) the uses (/ˈjuːzɪz/) uses of (/ɒv/) of this (/ðɪs/) this world (/wɜːrld/) world

79.10a The world is grown so bad that wrens make prey where eagles dare not perch 79.10b The (/ðə/) the world (/wɜːrld/) world is (/ɪz/) is grown (/groʊn/) grown so (/soʊ/) so bad (/bæd/) bad that (/ðæt/) that wrens (/rɛnz/) wrens make (/meɪk/) make prey (/preɪ/) prey where (/hwɛər/) where eagles (/ˈiːglz/) eagles dare (/dɛər/) dare not (/nɒt/) not perch (/pɜːrtʃ/) perch

79.11a From this vile world with vilest worms to dwell 79.11b From (/frɒm/) from this (/ðɪs/) this vile (/vʌɪl/) vile world (/wɜːrld/) world with (/wɪθ/) with vilest (/ˈvʌɪləst/) vilest-SUPL worms (/wɜːrmz/) worms to (/tuː/) to dwell (/dwɛl/) dwell

79.12a Speak the speech I pray you as I pronounced it to you trippingly on the tongue for all the world 79.12b Speak (/spiːk/) speak the (/ðə/) the speech (/spiːtʃ/) speech I (/ʌɪ/) I pray (/preɪ/) pray you (/juː/) you as (/æz/) as I (/ʌɪ/) I pronounced (/proʊˈnaʊnst/) pronounced it (/ɪt/) it to (/tuː/) to you (/juː/) you trippingly (/ˈtrɪpɪŋli/) trippingly on (/ɒn/) on the (/ðə/) the tongue (/tʊŋ/) tongue for (/fɔːr/) for all (/ɔːl/) all the (/ðə/) the world (/wɜːrld/) world

79.13a He hath brought many captives home to Rome whose ransoms did the general coffers fill throughout the world 79.13b He (/hiː/) he hath (/hæθ/) has-3SG brought (/brɔːt/) brought many (/ˈmɛni/) many captives (/ˈkæptɪvz/) captives home (/hoʊm/) home to (/tuː/) to Rome (/roʊm/) Rome whose (/huːz/) whose ransoms (/ˈrænsəmz/) ransoms did (/dɪd/) did-PAST the (/ðə/) the general (/ˈdʒɛnərəl/) general coffers (/ˈkɒfərz/) coffers fill (/fɪl/) fill throughout (/θruːˈaʊt/) throughout the (/ðə/) the world (/wɜːrld/) world

79.14a The contemplation of the world beyond these mortal bounds bringeth comfort 79.14b The (/ðə/) the contemplation (/ˌkɒntɛmˈpleɪsɪən/) contemplation of (/ɒv/) of the (/ðə/) the world (/wɜːrld/) world beyond (/bɪˈjɒnd/) beyond these (/ðiːz/) these mortal (/ˈmɔːrtəl/) mortal bounds (/baʊndz/) bounds bringeth (/ˈbrɪŋəθ/) brings-3SG comfort (/ˈkʊmfərt/) comfort

79.15a O brave new world that has such people in’t 79.15b O (/oʊ/) O-EXCL brave (/breɪv/) brave new (/njuː/) new world (/wɜːrld/) world that (/ðæt/) that has (/hæz/) has such (/sʊtʃ/) such people (/ˈpiːpl/) people in’t (/ɪnt/) in-it-CONTR

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SECTION B: NATURAL SENTENCES

79.1 All the world’s a stage. “All the world is a stage.”

79.2 What a world of troubles thou hast seen. “What a great quantity of troubles you have witnessed.”

79.3 The world doth turn upon fortune’s wheel. “The world turns upon fortune’s wheel.”

79.4 I hold the world but as the world. “I regard the world as merely the world, nothing more.”

79.5 This wide world containeth many wonders. “This vast world contains many wonders.”

79.6 Thy world and mine are sunder’d quite. “Your world and mine are completely separated.”

79.7 The fashion of this world passeth away. “The ways of this world pass away.”

79.8 No worldly treasure shall endure beyond the grave. “No earthly treasure shall last beyond death.”

79.9 How weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable seem to me all the uses of this world. “How tiresome, dull, lifeless, and worthless all the activities of this world seem to me.”

79.10 The world is grown so bad that wrens make prey where eagles dare not perch. “The world has become so corrupt that small birds hunt where great ones fear to land.”

79.11 From this vile world with vilest worms to dwell. “To depart from this wretched world to live among the basest creatures.”

79.12 Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you, trippingly on the tongue, for all the world. “Deliver the lines, I beg you, exactly as I spoke them to you, fluently, as if performing for all humanity.”

79.13 He hath brought many captives home to Rome, whose ransoms did the general coffers fill throughout the world. “He has brought many prisoners back to Rome, whose ransoms filled the public treasury from across the world.”

79.14 The contemplation of the world beyond these mortal bounds bringeth comfort. “Meditation upon the realm beyond this mortal life brings solace.”

79.15 O brave new world, that has such people in’t! “O wonderful new world that contains such people!”

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SECTION C: ELIZABETHAN TEXT ONLY

79.1 All the world’s a stage.

79.2 What a world of troubles thou hast seen.

79.3 The world doth turn upon fortune’s wheel.

79.4 I hold the world but as the world.

79.5 This wide world containeth many wonders.

79.6 Thy world and mine are sunder’d quite.

79.7 The fashion of this world passeth away.

79.8 No worldly treasure shall endure beyond the grave.

79.9 How weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable seem to me all the uses of this world.

79.10 The world is grown so bad that wrens make prey where eagles dare not perch.

79.11 From this vile world with vilest worms to dwell.

79.12 Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you, trippingly on the tongue, for all the world.

79.13 He hath brought many captives home to Rome, whose ransoms did the general coffers fill throughout the world.

79.14 The contemplation of the world beyond these mortal bounds bringeth comfort.

79.15 O brave new world, that has such people in’t!

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SECTION D: GRAMMAR EXPLANATION

These are the grammar rules for world in Elizabethan English.

Part of Speech: World functions primarily as a noun (substantive) in Early Modern English. It occasionally appears in compound adjectives (world-weary) and gives rise to derivatives including worldly (adjective), worldling (noun denoting one devoted to worldly pleasures), and worldliness (abstract noun).

Etymology: From Old English weorold, worold, combining wer (man) + eld (age), literally “age of man.” The word cognates with Old High German weralt and Old Norse verǫld. By the Elizabethan period, the spelling had stabilized to world, though printers occasionally used worlde or the double-v form vvorld.

Semantic Range in Shakespeare:

The word world carries multiple interconnected meanings in Elizabethan usage:

First meaning: The terrestrial globe, the earth as a physical entity. “He hath brought many captives home to Rome, whose ransoms did the general coffers fill throughout the world.” Here world denotes geographical extent.

Second meaning: Human society, the social realm. “The fashion of this world passeth away” uses world to indicate social customs and temporal trends.

Third meaning: Mortal existence as contrasted with spiritual or eternal life. “From this vile world with vilest worms to dwell” presents world as the domain of mortality and corruption.

Fourth meaning: A great quantity (colloquial intensifier). “What a world of troubles” means “an enormous amount of troubles.” This usage survives into Modern English.

Fifth meaning: The theatrical metaphor. “All the world’s a stage” equates human existence with theatrical performance, a conceit that permeates Shakespeare’s works.

Verb Agreement with Third Person Singular:

Elizabethan English employed the -eth suffix for third person singular present tense, alternating with the emerging -s form. Thus: the world containeth or the world contains; the world passeth or the world passes. The -eth form (/əθ/) was increasingly archaic by 1600, used for formal or solemn registers.

Possessive Formation:

The possessive of world follows standard Early Modern patterns: the world’s stage (with apostrophe-s, though Elizabethan printing was inconsistent with apostrophe usage). The genitive could also be formed periphrastically: the stage of the world.

Common Collocations:

All the world — used as intensifier or universal scope This world — the present mortal realm (often contrasted with the next world) The wide world — the entire earth A world of — great quantity of New world — recently discovered lands (Americas) Old world — Europe, known territories Out of this world — extraordinary, beyond mortal expectation Worldly — pertaining to secular concerns

Pronunciation Notes (Original Pronunciation):

The word world was pronounced /wɜːrld/ with a clearly audible rhotic /r/. Unlike Modern Received Pronunciation, Early Modern English was fully rhotic in all positions.

The -tion suffix throughout Elizabethan English was pronounced /sɪən/ rather than Modern /ʃən/. Thus contemplation sounded like /ˌkɒntɛmˈpleɪsɪən/, and fashion retained a distinct /ʃ/ sound as /ˈfæʃɪən/.

Long vowels were mid-shift: stage as /steɪdʒ/ (close to modern), but I as /ʌɪ/ (more open than modern /aɪ/), and new as /njuː/ (with distinct /j/ glide).

Common Mistakes:

Modern readers often misapply contemporary pronunciation, particularly flattening the rhotic /r/ and using modern -tion pronunciation. Reading aloud in Original Pronunciation reveals sound patterns, puns, and rhymes invisible to modern ears.

The distinction between thy and your (familiar vs. formal second person) is often overlooked. Thy world implies intimacy or condescension; your world maintains social distance.

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SECTION E: CULTURAL CONTEXT

Elizabethan World Picture:

The Elizabethan understanding of world was inseparable from the cosmological model inherited from medieval Christianity and classical philosophy. The world occupied a specific position in the Great Chain of Being: beneath the celestial spheres and heavenly realms, above hell and chaos. Humans stood midway between angels and beasts, and the world was their testing ground.

Theatrical Significance:

The motto of Shakespeare’s Globe Theatre, Totus mundus agit histrionem (”All the world plays the actor”), made the world-as-stage metaphor architectural. When Jaques proclaims “All the world’s a stage,” the physical theatre literalized the comparison. Audience members stood within a structure designed to represent cosmic order: the heavens painted above, hell accessible through trapdoors below, and the world of the stage between.

New World Discovery:

The Elizabethan period witnessed revolutionary expansion of world knowledge. The Americas, encountered by Columbus in 1492, were still being explored and colonized. When Miranda exclaims “O brave new world!” in The Tempest, she voices both wonder at human possibility and dramatic irony about colonial encounter. The “new world” designation distinguished American territories from the “old world” of Europe, Africa, and Asia.

Religious Tension:

World carried heavy theological weight. The Pauline injunction against worldliness (devotion to secular pleasures) pervaded Protestant preaching. “The fashion of this world passeth away” echoes 1 Corinthians 7:31, framing world as transient and spiritually dangerous. Yet the Renaissance also celebrated worldly achievement, creating productive tension in how world was valued.

Idiomatic Expressions:

For all the world — exactly, in every respect (”She looked for all the world like her mother”) The world’s mine oyster — limitless opportunity (Merry Wives of Windsor) In the world — intensifier in questions (”What in the world do you mean?”) World without end — eternally (from the doxology “world without end, amen”)

Regional and Class Variations:

London pronunciation, reflected in theatrical practice, was becoming the prestige standard. Provincial accents retained older vowel values. The word world would have sounded more uniform across regions than many words still undergoing the Great Vowel Shift, as its vowel was relatively stable.

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SECTION F: LITERARY CITATION

Source: William Shakespeare, As You Like It, Act II, Scene VII (c. 1599)

F-A: Interlinear Construed Text

All (/ɔːl/) all the (/ðə/) the world’s (/wɜːrldz/) world-POSS a (/ə/) a stage (/steɪdʒ/) stage

And (/ænd/) and all (/ɔːl/) all the (/ðə/) the men (/mɛn/) men and (/ænd/) and women (/ˈwɪmɪn/) women merely (/ˈmɪərli/) merely players (/ˈpleɪərz/) players

They (/ðeɪ/) they have (/hæv/) have their (/ðɛər/) their exits (/ˈɛksɪts/) exits and (/ænd/) and their (/ðɛər/) their entrances (/ˈɛntrənsɪz/) entrances

And (/ænd/) and one (/wʊn/) one man (/mæn/) man in (/ɪn/) in his (/hɪz/) his time (/tʌɪm/) time plays (/pleɪz/) plays many (/ˈmɛni/) many parts (/pɑːrts/) parts

His (/hɪz/) his acts (/ækts/) acts being (/ˈbiːɪŋ/) being seven (/ˈsɛvən/) seven ages (/ˈeɪdʒɪz/) ages

At (/æt/) at first (/fɜːrst/) first the (/ðə/) the infant (/ˈɪnfənt/) infant

Mewling (/ˈmjuːlɪŋ/) mewling-PART and (/ænd/) and puking (/ˈpjuːkɪŋ/) puking-PART in (/ɪn/) in the (/ðə/) the nurse’s (/ˈnɜːrsɪz/) nurse-POSS arms (/ɑːrmz/) arms

F-B: Natural Text with Translation

All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts, His acts being seven ages. At first, the infant, Mewling and puking in the nurse’s arms.

“The entire world is a stage, and all men and women are merely actors; they have their departures and arrivals, and one man during his lifetime plays many roles, his life’s acts consisting of seven ages. First comes the infant, crying and vomiting in the nurse’s arms.”

F-C: Original Text Only

All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players; They have their exits and their entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts, His acts being seven ages. At first, the infant, Mewling and puking in the nurse’s arms.

F-D: Grammar and Vocabulary Notes

This passage exemplifies Shakespeare’s integration of theatrical terminology with philosophical reflection. The speech is delivered by the melancholy Jaques to Duke Senior in the Forest of Arden.

Merely — purely, nothing more than (not the modern sense of “only, just”) Players — actors (theatrical term) Exits and entrances — technical stage directions made metaphorical In his time — during his lifetime Parts — theatrical roles, but punning on “portions” Acts — theatrical divisions and actions, punning on “deeds” Seven ages — referring to the medieval tradition of dividing human life into seven stages Mewling — crying weakly, like a cat (onomatopoeic) Puking — vomiting (the word was not vulgar in Elizabethan usage)

The passage employs iambic pentameter with variations. “All the world’s a stage” scans as trochee-iamb-iamb-iamb, the opening stress emphasizing All.

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GENRE SECTION: SOLILOQUY — A Meditation Upon the World

The following fifteen examples form a coherent dramatic soliloquy in the Elizabethan manner, exploring world through the lens of a contemplative speaker.

Part A: Interlinear Construed Text

79.16a What is this world but a passing shadow 79.16b What (/hwɒt/) what is (/ɪz/) is this (/ðɪs/) this world (/wɜːrld/) world but (/bʊt/) but a (/ə/) a passing (/ˈpɑːsɪŋ/) passing shadow (/ˈʃædoʊ/) shadow

79.17a I have walked through this world as a stranger 79.17b I (/ʌɪ/) I have (/hæv/) have walked (/wɔːkt/) walked through (/θruː/) through this (/ðɪs/) this world (/wɜːrld/) world as (/æz/) as a (/ə/) a stranger (/ˈstreɪndʒər/) stranger

79.18a The world hath shown me its fairest face and its foulest 79.18b The (/ðə/) the world (/wɜːrld/) world hath (/hæθ/) has-3SG shown (/ʃoʊn/) shown me (/miː/) me its (/ɪts/) its fairest (/ˈfɛərəst/) fairest-SUPL face (/feɪs/) face and (/ænd/) and its (/ɪts/) its foulest (/ˈfaʊləst/) foulest-SUPL

79.19a In my youth the world did seem a garden of delights 79.19b In (/ɪn/) in my (/mʌɪ/) my youth (/juːθ/) youth the (/ðə/) the world (/wɜːrld/) world did (/dɪd/) did-PAST seem (/siːm/) seem a (/ə/) a garden (/ˈgɑːrdən/) garden of (/ɒv/) of delights (/dɪˈlʌɪts/) delights

79.20a Now the world appeareth but a wilderness of thorns 79.20b Now (/naʊ/) now the (/ðə/) the world (/wɜːrld/) world appeareth (/əˈpɪərəθ/) appears-3SG but (/bʊt/) only a (/ə/) a wilderness (/ˈwɪldərnəs/) wilderness of (/ɒv/) of thorns (/θɔːrnz/) thorns

79.21a Wherefore should I love a world that loveth not me 79.21b Wherefore (/ˈhwɛərfɔːr/) wherefore should (/ʃʊd/) should I (/ʌɪ/) I love (/lʊv/) love a (/ə/) a world (/wɜːrld/) world that (/ðæt/) that loveth (/ˈlʊvəθ/) loves-3SG not (/nɒt/) not me (/miː/) me

79.22a The world’s affection is a fickle mistress 79.22b The (/ðə/) the world’s (/wɜːrldz/) world-POSS affection (/əˈfɛksɪən/) affection is (/ɪz/) is a (/ə/) a fickle (/ˈfɪkl/) fickle mistress (/ˈmɪstrəs/) mistress

79.23a She doth bestow her favours upon fools and flatterers 79.23b She (/ʃiː/) she doth (/dʊθ/) does-AUX bestow (/bɪˈstoʊ/) bestow her (/hɜːr/) her favours (/ˈfeɪvərz/) favours upon (/əˈpɒn/) upon fools (/fuːlz/) fools and (/ænd/) and flatterers (/ˈflætərərz/) flatterers

79.24a While honest men are left to wander through this cold world without reward 79.24b While (/hwʌɪl/) while honest (/ˈɒnəst/) honest men (/mɛn/) men are (/ɑːr/) are left (/lɛft/) left to (/tuː/) to wander (/ˈwɒndər/) wander through (/θruː/) through this (/ðɪs/) this cold (/koʊld/) cold world (/wɜːrld/) world without (/wɪˈðaʊt/) without reward (/rɪˈwɔːrd/) reward

79.25a Yet the world shall not conquer my spirit 79.25b Yet (/jɛt/) yet the (/ðə/) the world (/wɜːrld/) world shall (/ʃæl/) shall-FUT not (/nɒt/) not conquer (/ˈkɒŋkər/) conquer my (/mʌɪ/) my spirit (/ˈspɪrɪt/) spirit

79.26a I shall stand against the world as a rock against the sea 79.26b I (/ʌɪ/) I shall (/ʃæl/) shall-FUT stand (/stænd/) stand against (/əˈgɛnst/) against the (/ðə/) the world (/wɜːrld/) world as (/æz/) as a (/ə/) a rock (/rɒk/) rock against (/əˈgɛnst/) against the (/ðə/) the sea (/siː/) sea

79.27a Let the world rage and storm I fear it not 79.27b Let (/lɛt/) let-IMP the (/ðə/) the world (/wɜːrld/) world rage (/reɪdʒ/) rage and (/ænd/) and storm (/stɔːrm/) storm I (/ʌɪ/) I fear (/fɪər/) fear it (/ɪt/) it not (/nɒt/) not

79.28a For there is a world beyond this world where justice reigneth 79.28b For (/fɔːr/) for there (/ðɛər/) there is (/ɪz/) is a (/ə/) a world (/wɜːrld/) world beyond (/bɪˈjɒnd/) beyond this (/ðɪs/) this world (/wɜːrld/) world where (/hwɛər/) where justice (/ˈdʒʊstɪs/) justice reigneth (/ˈreɪnəθ/) reigns-3SG

79.29a In that eternal world the humble shall be exalted 79.29b In (/ɪn/) in that (/ðæt/) that eternal (/ɪˈtɜːrnəl/) eternal world (/wɜːrld/) world the (/ðə/) the humble (/ˈhʊmbl/) humble shall (/ʃæl/) shall-FUT be (/biː/) be exalted (/ɪgˈzɔːltɪd/) exalted

79.30a And this poor world shall pass away like morning mist before the sun 79.30b And (/ænd/) and this (/ðɪs/) this poor (/pʊər/) poor world (/wɜːrld/) world shall (/ʃæl/) shall-FUT pass (/pæs/) pass away (/əˈweɪ/) away like (/lʌɪk/) like morning (/ˈmɔːrnɪŋ/) morning mist (/mɪst/) mist before (/bɪˈfɔːr/) before the (/ðə/) the sun (/sʊn/) sun

Part B: Natural Sentences

79.16 What is this world but a passing shadow? “What is this world but a fleeting shadow?”

79.17 I have walked through this world as a stranger. “I have journeyed through this world as an outsider.”

79.18 The world hath shown me its fairest face and its foulest. “The world has revealed to me both its most beautiful and most hideous aspects.”

79.19 In my youth, the world did seem a garden of delights. “In my youth, the world appeared to be a garden of pleasures.”

79.20 Now the world appeareth but a wilderness of thorns. “Now the world seems only a wasteland of thorns.”

79.21 Wherefore should I love a world that loveth not me? “Why should I love a world that does not love me?”

79.22 The world’s affection is a fickle mistress. “The world’s favour is an inconstant lady.”

79.23 She doth bestow her favours upon fools and flatterers. “She gives her blessings to fools and sycophants.”

79.24 While honest men are left to wander through this cold world without reward. “While truthful men are abandoned to roam through this harsh world unrewarded.”

79.25 Yet the world shall not conquer my spirit. “Nevertheless, the world shall not defeat my soul.”

79.26 I shall stand against the world as a rock against the sea. “I shall resist the world as a boulder resists the ocean.”

79.27 Let the world rage and storm; I fear it not. “Let the world rage and tempest; I do not fear it.”

79.28 For there is a world beyond this world where justice reigneth. “For there exists a realm beyond this one where justice rules.”

79.29 In that eternal world, the humble shall be exalted. “In that everlasting realm, the meek shall be raised up.”

79.30 And this poor world shall pass away like morning mist before the sun. “And this wretched world shall vanish like dawn fog before the rising sun.”

Part C: Elizabethan Text Only

79.16 What is this world but a passing shadow?

79.17 I have walked through this world as a stranger.

79.18 The world hath shown me its fairest face and its foulest.

79.19 In my youth, the world did seem a garden of delights.

79.20 Now the world appeareth but a wilderness of thorns.

79.21 Wherefore should I love a world that loveth not me?

79.22 The world’s affection is a fickle mistress.

79.23 She doth bestow her favours upon fools and flatterers.

79.24 While honest men are left to wander through this cold world without reward.

79.25 Yet the world shall not conquer my spirit.

79.26 I shall stand against the world as a rock against the sea.

79.27 Let the world rage and storm; I fear it not.

79.28 For there is a world beyond this world where justice reigneth.

79.29 In that eternal world, the humble shall be exalted.

79.30 And this poor world shall pass away like morning mist before the sun.

Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section

This soliloquy demonstrates key features of Elizabethan dramatic verse:

Auxiliary doth/did for emphasis: “She doth bestow” and “the world did seem” employ do-support for emphatic or metrical purposes, not interrogative or negative functions as in Modern English.

Third person -eth endings: Loveth, appeareth, reigneth represent the formal, archaic third person singular present. By 1600, -s forms predominated in speech, but -eth persisted in elevated discourse.

Rhetorical questions: “What is this world but...” and “Wherefore should I love...” employ interrogative forms for meditative effect, not information-seeking.

Imperative let: “Let the world rage” forms a third-person imperative, permitting rather than commanding.

World as personified: The soliloquy personifies world as female (”She doth bestow”), following the convention of abstract nouns as feminine.

Antithesis structure: The soliloquy balances youth/age, garden/wilderness, fairest/foulest, humble/exalted, creating dialectical movement characteristic of Renaissance rhetoric.

Eschatological contrast: “This world” versus “that eternal world” reflects Protestant theology’s distinction between temporal and eternal realms.

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PRONUNCIATION GUIDE

Key Original Pronunciation Features:

The -tion Suffix: Pronounced /sɪən/ in Early Modern English, not Modern /ʃən/. Thus:

• contemplation — /ˌkɒntɛmˈpleɪsɪən/

• affection — /əˈfɛksɪən/

• fashion — /ˈfæʃɪən/ (note: -sion retained /ʃ/)

Rhotic /r/: Sounded in all positions. Modern non-rhotic accents drop post-vocalic /r/, but Elizabethans pronounced:

• world — /wɜːrld/ (not modern RP /wɜːld/)

• stranger — /ˈstreɪndʒər/

• reward — /rɪˈwɔːrd/

The Great Vowel Shift (Mid-Progress):

• Long i (spelled i, y) — /ʌɪ/ (more open than modern /aɪ/)

• Long a (spelled a-e, ai) — /eɪ/ (similar to modern)

• Long o (spelled o-e, oa) — /oʊ/ (similar to modern)

Wh- Words: The cluster wh- was pronounced /hw/, distinguishing which /hwɪtʃ/ from witch /wɪtʃ/:

• what — /hwɒt/

• where — /hwɛər/

• wherefore — /ˈhwɛərfɔːr/

• while — /hwʌɪl/

Common Pronunciation Errors for Modern Speakers:

• Dropping the /r/ in post-vocalic positions

• Using modern -tion pronunciation /ʃən/

• Pronouncing wh- as /w/ instead of /hw/

• Applying modern vowel values to words still mid-shift

Audio Resources: David Crystal and Ben Crystal’s recordings of Shakespeare in Original Pronunciation provide authoritative models. The Shakespeare’s Globe OP productions (2004–2005) are documented online.

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ABOUT THIS COURSE

This lesson forms part of the Elizabethan English Historical Language Course, produced using the Latinum Institute methodology for autodidact learners. The Latinum Institute has been creating materials for independent language learners since 2006.

Course Philosophy:

The construed text approach enables learners to absorb Elizabethan grammar and vocabulary through exposure to authentic patterns rather than abstract rule memorization. By providing word-by-word glosses with pronunciation guidance, each sentence becomes immediately accessible while building intuitive understanding of period syntax.

Elizabethan English and Original Pronunciation:

This course incorporates David Crystal’s scholarship on Shakespeare’s Original Pronunciation (OP), allowing learners to encounter Early Modern English as it sounded to its original speakers. Understanding period pronunciation illuminates puns, rhymes, and sound patterns invisible to modern readers.

Why Study Elizabethan English?

Elizabethan English stands at the fountainhead of modern literature. Shakespeare, Marlowe, Spenser, Sidney, and the King James Bible translators created works that continue to shape English expression. Reading these texts with period awareness reveals layers of meaning obscured by four centuries of linguistic change.

Links:

Course Index: https://latinum.substack.com/p/index

Latinum Institute Reviews: https://uk.trustpilot.com/review/latinum.org.uk

Benefits of Construed Text:

The interlinear format accelerates comprehension by eliminating dictionary dependency. Learners can read directly, acquiring vocabulary and grammar through contextual encounter. This method, derived from Renaissance humanist pedagogy, has proven effective across centuries of classical language instruction.

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✓ Lesson 079 Elizabethan English complete

Call — The Verb of Summoning, Naming, and Address

INTRODUCTION

The verb call stands among the most versatile words in Elizabethan English, serving simultaneously as an instrument of summoning, a means of naming, and a form of direct address. In the hands of Shakespeare and his contemporaries, this seemingly simple word carried considerable dramatic weight, appearing in contexts ranging from the supernatural invocation of spirits to the intimate naming of lovers.

In Elizabethan usage, call retained its Germanic roots while acquiring additional Latin-influenced meanings through contact with French. A character might “call upon” the gods, “call out” a coward, “call to mind” a memory, or simply “call” someone by name. The word participates in the period’s rich tradition of performative language—where to call something by name was believed to hold genuine power over its nature.

This lesson explores call through thirty examples that demonstrate its grammatical flexibility and semantic range within Early Modern English. The interlinear construed text format allows autodidact learners to understand each word’s function while absorbing authentic Elizabethan syntax and vocabulary.

Course Index:

https://latinum.substack.com/p/index

FAQ: What does “call” mean in Elizabethan English?

The verb “call” in Elizabethan English means to summon someone or something by voice, to name or designate, to address by a particular title, to invoke or appeal to, or to visit briefly. It functions as a regular verb with the past tense “called” and past participle “called,” while also appearing in numerous phrasal combinations such as “call upon,” “call forth,” “call to mind,” and “call into question.”

Key Takeaways:

• Call functions as a verb of communication, naming, and summoning

• Elizabethan pronunciation featured rhotic R (pronouncing R after vowels)

• The suffix -tion was pronounced /sɪən/ not modern /ʃən/

• Many vowels retained continental values closer to Italian or German

• Word stress patterns often differed from modern English

• “Call” participates in numerous idiomatic expressions still used today

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PRONUNCIATION GUIDE FOR ELIZABETHAN ENGLISH

Elizabethan English, also known as Early Modern English or Original Pronunciation (OP), differed significantly from both modern British Received Pronunciation and General American English. Key features include:

Vowels: Long vowels retained more continental values. The word “life” sounded closer to /laɪf/ but with a more central starting point. “Reason” rhymed with “raisin.” “Rome” and “room” were homophones.

R-coloration: All R’s were pronounced, including after vowels. “Heart” was /hɛːɹt/, “more” was /moːɹ/.

The -tion suffix: Pronounced as two syllables /sɪən/ rather than modern /ʃən/. Thus “nation” was /neɪsɪən/, “question” was /kwɛstɪən/.

H-dropping: Initial H was often silent in unstressed positions. “Hour” sounded like “ore.”

The verb “call”: Pronounced /kɔːl/ with a fully rounded back vowel and pronounced final L.

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SECTION A: INTERLINEAR CONSTRUED TEXT

78.1a Call me not traitor when I speak the truth

78.1b Call /kɔːl/ name-IMPER me /meː/ me-OBJ not /nɔt/ NEG traitor /trɛɪtəɹ/ traitor when /ʍɛn/ when I /əɪ/ I speak /speːk/ speak the /ðə/ the truth /tɹuːθ/ truth

78.2a I shall call upon thee at the morrow

78.2b I /əɪ/ I shall /ʃal/ shall call /kɔːl/ call upon /əpɔn/ upon thee /ðiː/ thee-OBJ at /at/ at the /ðə/ the morrow /mɔɹoː/ morrow

78.3a They call him mad that speaks of love

78.3b They /ðeɪ/ they call /kɔːl/ call him /ɪm/ him mad /mad/ mad that /ðat/ who-REL speaks /speːks/ speaks of /ɔv/ of love /lʊv/ love

78.4a What dost thou call this wondrous apparition

78.4b What /ʍat/ what dost /dʊst/ do-2SG thou /ðaʊ/ thou call /kɔːl/ call this /ðɪs/ this wondrous /wʊndɹəs/ wondrous apparition /apəɹɪsɪən/ apparition

78.5a Call forth the spirits that attend on night

78.5b Call /kɔːl/ call-IMPER forth /fɔːɹθ/ forth the /ðə/ the spirits /spɪɹɪts/ spirits that /ðat/ that-REL attend /ətɛnd/ attend on /ɔn/ on night /nəɪt/ night

78.6a She would not call her husband lord and master

78.6b She /ʃeː/ she would /wʊd/ would not /nɔt/ NEG call /kɔːl/ call her /hɛːɹ/ her husband /hʊzbənd/ husband lord /lɔːɹd/ lord and /and/ and master /maːstəɹ/ master

78.7a The trumpet calls us to the battlefield

78.7b The /ðə/ the trumpet /tɹʊmpɪt/ trumpet calls /kɔːlz/ calls us /ʊs/ us to /tuː/ to the /ðə/ the battlefield /batl̩fiːld/ battlefield

78.8a I call heaven to witness my sworn oath

78.8b I /əɪ/ I call /kɔːl/ call heaven /hɛvn̩/ heaven to /tuː/ to witness /wɪtnɪs/ witness my /məɪ/ my sworn /swɔːɹn/ sworn oath /oːθ/ oath

78.9a Men call that virtue which serves their interest

78.9b Men /mɛn/ men call /kɔːl/ call that /ðat/ that virtue /vɛːɹtʃuː/ virtue which /ʍɪtʃ/ which serves /sɛːɹvz/ serves their /ðɛːɹ/ their interest /ɪntɹɪst/ interest

78.10a Call to thy mind the promise thou didst make

78.10b Call /kɔːl/ call-IMPER to /tuː/ to thy /ðəɪ/ thy mind /məɪnd/ mind the /ðə/ the promise /pɹɔmɪs/ promise thou /ðaʊ/ thou didst /dɪdst/ did-2SG make /meːk/ make

78.11a Wherefore doth the physician call this malady incurable

78.11b Wherefore /ʍɛːɹfɔːɹ/ wherefore doth /dʊθ/ does-3SG the /ðə/ the physician /fɪzɪsɪən/ physician call /kɔːl/ call this /ðɪs/ this malady /malədiː/ malady incurable /ɪnkjuːɹəbl̩/ incurable

78.12a They called the council to decide upon the succession

78.12b They /ðeɪ/ they called /kɔːld/ called-PAST the /ðə/ the council /kaʊnsl̩/ council to /tuː/ to decide /dɪsəɪd/ decide upon /əpɔn/ upon the /ðə/ the succession /sʊksɛsɪən/ succession

78.13a The watchman calls the hour through the sleeping town

78.13b The /ðə/ the watchman /wɔtʃmən/ watchman calls /kɔːlz/ calls the /ðə/ the hour /oːɹ/ hour through /θɹuː/ through the /ðə/ the sleeping /sleːpɪŋ/ sleeping town /taʊn/ town

78.14a I will call no man friend that betrays his country

78.14b I /əɪ/ I will /wɪl/ will call /kɔːl/ call no /noː/ no man /man/ man friend /fɹɛnd/ friend that /ðat/ that-REL betrays /bɪtɹeɪz/ betrays his /hɪz/ his country /kʊntɹiː/ country

78.15a Fortune calls the brave unto her wheel

78.15b Fortune /fɔːɹtʃuːn/ Fortune calls /kɔːlz/ calls the /ðə/ the brave /bɹeːv/ brave unto /ʊntuː/ unto her /hɛːɹ/ her wheel /ʍiːl/ wheel

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SECTION B: NATURAL SENTENCES

78.1 Call me not traitor when I speak the truth. “Do not name me traitor when I speak what is true.”

78.2 I shall call upon thee at the morrow. “I will visit you tomorrow.”

78.3 They call him mad that speaks of love. “Those who speak of love are called mad by others.”

78.4 What dost thou call this wondrous apparition? “What do you call this marvelous vision?”

78.5 Call forth the spirits that attend on night. “Summon the spirits that serve the darkness.”

78.6 She would not call her husband lord and master. “She refused to address her husband as lord and master.”

78.7 The trumpet calls us to the battlefield. “The trumpet summons us to war.”

78.8 I call heaven to witness my sworn oath. “I invoke heaven as witness to my solemn vow.”

78.9 Men call that virtue which serves their interest. “People name as virtue whatever benefits themselves.”

78.10 Call to thy mind the promise thou didst make. “Remember the promise you once made.”

78.11 Wherefore doth the physician call this malady incurable? “Why does the doctor declare this illness beyond remedy?”

78.12 They called the council to decide upon the succession. “They convened the council to determine the heir.”

78.13 The watchman calls the hour through the sleeping town. “The night watchman announces the time across the quiet town.”

78.14 I will call no man friend that betrays his country. “I shall not consider any man a friend who betrays his nation.”

78.15 Fortune calls the brave unto her wheel. “Fate summons the courageous to her turning wheel of chance.”

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SECTION C: ELIZABETHAN TEXT ONLY

78.1 Call me not traitor when I speak the truth.

78.2 I shall call upon thee at the morrow.

78.3 They call him mad that speaks of love.

78.4 What dost thou call this wondrous apparition?

78.5 Call forth the spirits that attend on night.

78.6 She would not call her husband lord and master.

78.7 The trumpet calls us to the battlefield.

78.8 I call heaven to witness my sworn oath.

78.9 Men call that virtue which serves their interest.

78.10 Call to thy mind the promise thou didst make.

78.11 Wherefore doth the physician call this malady incurable?

78.12 They called the council to decide upon the succession.

78.13 The watchman calls the hour through the sleeping town.

78.14 I will call no man friend that betrays his country.

78.15 Fortune calls the brave unto her wheel.

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SECTION D: GRAMMAR EXPLANATION

These are the grammar rules for “call” in Elizabethan English:

The verb call functions as a regular weak verb in Elizabethan English, forming its past tense and past participle with the dental suffix -ed. The conjugation follows standard Early Modern English patterns while preserving archaic second-person forms that have since fallen from use.

Present Tense Conjugation:

First person singular: I call /əɪ kɔːl/ Second person singular familiar: thou callest /ðaʊ kɔːlɪst/ Second person singular formal: you call /juː kɔːl/ Third person singular: he, she, it calleth or calls /kɔːlɪθ/ or /kɔːlz/ First person plural: we call /wiː kɔːl/ Second person plural: you call /juː kɔːl/ Third person plural: they call /ðeɪ kɔːl/

Past Tense Conjugation:

First person singular: I called /əɪ kɔːld/ Second person singular familiar: thou calledst /ðaʊ kɔːlɪdst/ Third person singular: he, she, it called /kɔːld/ All plurals: called /kɔːld/

The Subjunctive Mood:

Elizabethan English retained a living subjunctive mood. With “call,” this appears in wishes, commands, and hypothetical statements: “Heaven call down blessings on thy head” uses the base form “call” without the third-person inflection.

Auxiliary Verb Patterns:

The auxiliary “do” appears in questions and negations: “Dost thou call?” “I do not call.” The auxiliary “doth” serves third-person singular: “He doth call upon the king.”

Phrasal Combinations with Call:

Call upon: to visit or to invoke. “I shall call upon thee” means both “I shall visit you” and “I shall appeal to you.”

Call forth: to summon into presence. “Call forth the spirits” commands supernatural beings to appear.

Call to mind: to remember. “Call to thy mind” instructs recollection.

Call into question: to doubt or challenge. “His honour stands called into question.”

Object Complement Construction:

A distinctive feature of “call” involves the object complement, where the verb takes both a direct object and a predicative complement: “They call him mad” — “him” receives the action while “mad” describes what he is called. This construction survives in modern English.

Common Mistakes for Modern Learners:

The second-person familiar forms (thou callest, thou calledst) follow specific rules. “Thou” takes a distinct verb ending (-est present, -edst past) and cannot be freely substituted for “you” without adjusting the verb form.

The third-person suffix -eth was becoming archaic even in Shakespeare’s time, with -s increasingly dominant in speech. Both forms appear in period texts, often with -eth preferred in formal or biblical registers.

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SECTION E: CULTURAL CONTEXT

The Power of Naming:

Elizabethan culture inherited from medieval tradition a belief in the magical power of names. To call something by its true name was to exercise a form of control over it. This survives in theatrical superstition: actors famously avoid saying “Macbeth” in a theatre, referring instead to “the Scottish play.” The verb “call” thus carried weight beyond mere communication—it enacted a relationship between speaker and subject.

Thou and You:

The examples above employ both “thou” and “you” in their proper contexts. “Thou” indicated intimacy, informality, or (crucially) condescension. To “thou” a social superior was an insult; to be “thou’d” by a stranger implied either contempt or passionate emotion. The phrase “Call me not traitor” uses the familiar form because it occurs between intimates or equals in conflict.

Calling Cards and Social Visits:

“To call upon” someone meant to pay a social visit—a ritual with strict rules of etiquette. Morning calls occurred in the early afternoon; one “called” on the ill to wish recovery; gentlemen “called upon” ladies only with permission. This usage persisted into the Victorian era.

Theatrical Calling:

In the Elizabethan playhouse, actors were “called” to the stage by the book-keeper. The phrase “call-boy” derives from the servant who summoned actors for their entrances. When a character “calls” another onstage, the metatheatrical resonance was immediately apparent to audiences aware of backstage practices.

Religious Calling:

“The calling” referred to one’s divinely appointed vocation. Protestant theology emphasized that all honest labor, not only priesthood, constituted a holy calling. To be “called” by God meant to receive a summons to salvation or to particular service.

Dialectal Variations:

While the examples reflect the London standard familiar from printed texts, regional dialects would have pronounced “call” differently. Northern speakers retained older vowel qualities; Scots pronunciation diverged further. Shakespeare’s plays occasionally mark dialectal speech for comic or characterizing effect.

The Call of Nature:

Elizabethans used various euphemisms for bodily functions. “To answer nature’s call” appears in period texts, demonstrating the verb’s extension into polite circumlocution.

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SECTION F: LITERARY CITATION

From William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar (c. 1599), Act I, Scene ii:

Cassius speaks to Brutus of the power they hold as Romans to resist tyranny:

F-A: Interlinear Construed Text

Why /ʍəɪ/ why should /ʃʊd/ should that /ðat/ that name /neːm/ name be /biː/ be sounded /saʊndɪd/ sounded more /moːɹ/ more than /ðan/ than yours /juːɹz/ yours

Write /ɹəɪt/ write them /ðɛm/ them together /təgɛðəɹ/ together yours /juːɹz/ yours is /ɪz/ is as /az/ as fair /fɛːɹ/ fair a /ə/ a name /neːm/ name

Sound /saʊnd/ sound them /ðɛm/ them it /ɪt/ it doth /dʊθ/ does become /bɪkʊm/ become the /ðə/ the mouth /maʊθ/ mouth as /az/ as well /wɛl/ well

Weigh /weɪ/ weigh them /ðɛm/ them it /ɪt/ it is /ɪz/ is as /az/ as heavy /hɛviː/ heavy

Conjure /kʊndʒəɹ/ conjure with /wɪð/ with them /ðɛm/ them Brutus /bɹuːtəs/ Brutus will /wɪl/ will start /staːɹt/ start a /ə/ a spirit /spɪɹɪt/ spirit as /az/ as soon /suːn/ as-soon as /az/ as Caesar /siːzəɹ/ Caesar

Now /naʊ/ now in /ɪn/ in the /ðə/ the names /neːmz/ names of /ɔv/ of all /ɔːl/ all the /ðə/ the gods /gɔdz/ gods at /at/ at once /wʊns/ once

Upon /əpɔn/ upon what /ʍat/ what meat /meːt/ meat doth /dʊθ/ does this /ðɪs/ this our /aʊɹ/ our Caesar /siːzəɹ/ Caesar feed /fiːd/ feed

That /ðat/ that he /hiː/ he is /ɪz/ is grown /gɹoːn/ grown so /soː/ so great /gɹeːt/ great

Age /eːdʒ/ age thou /ðaʊ/ thou art /aːɹt/ art shamed /ʃeːmd/ shamed

Rome /ɹuːm/ Rome thou /ðaʊ/ thou hast /hast/ hast lost /lɔst/ lost the /ðə/ the breed /bɹiːd/ breed of /ɔv/ of noble /noːbl̩/ noble bloods /blʊdz/ bloods

When /ʍɛn/ when went /wɛnt/ went there /ðɛːɹ/ there by /bəɪ/ by an /ən/ an age /eːdʒ/ age since /sɪns/ since the /ðə/ the great /gɹeːt/ great flood /flʊd/ flood

But /bʊt/ but it /ɪt/ it was /waz/ was famed /feːmd/ famed with /wɪð/ with more /moːɹ/ more than /ðan/ than with /wɪð/ with one /wʊn/ one man /man/ man

When /ʍɛn/ when could /kʊd/ could they /ðeɪ/ they say /seɪ/ say till /tɪl/ till now /naʊ/ now that /ðat/ that talked /tɔːkt/ talked of /ɔv/ of Rome /ɹuːm/ Rome

That /ðat/ that her /hɛːɹ/ her wide /wəɪd/ wide walls /wɔːlz/ walls encompassed /ɛnkʊmpəsd/ encompassed but /bʊt/ but one /wʊn/ one man /man/ man

Now /naʊ/ now is /ɪz/ is it /ɪt/ it Rome /ɹuːm/ Rome indeed /ɪndiːd/ indeed and /and/ and room /ɹuːm/ room enough /ɪnʊf/ enough

When /ʍɛn/ when there /ðɛːɹ/ there is /ɪz/ is in /ɪn/ in it /ɪt/ it but /bʊt/ but one /wʊn/ one only /oːnliː/ only man /man/ man

F-B: Authentic Text with Translation

Why should that name be sounded more than yours? Write them together, yours is as fair a name; Sound them, it doth become the mouth as well; Weigh them, it is as heavy; conjure with them, Brutus will start a spirit as soon as Caesar. Now, in the names of all the gods at once, Upon what meat doth this our Caesar feed, That he is grown so great? Age, thou art shamed! Rome, thou hast lost the breed of noble bloods! When went there by an age, since the great flood, But it was famed with more than with one man? When could they say till now, that talked of Rome, That her wide walls encompassed but one man? Now is it Rome indeed and room enough, When there is in it but one only man.

“Why should Caesar’s name be spoken more than yours? Write them side by side, your name is as good; speak them, your name sounds as noble; weigh them, yours is as significant; invoke them magically, and Brutus would summon a spirit as quickly as Caesar. Now, by all the gods at once, on what food does this Caesar of ours feed that he has grown so powerful? Our age should be ashamed! Rome, you have lost your lineage of noble heroes! When has there been an era since the ancient flood that was celebrated for only one man? When could anyone speaking of Rome say until now that her vast walls contained only one man? Now Rome truly is ‘room’—and room for only one.”

F-C: Authentic Text Only

Why should that name be sounded more than yours? Write them together, yours is as fair a name; Sound them, it doth become the mouth as well; Weigh them, it is as heavy; conjure with them, Brutus will start a spirit as soon as Caesar. Now, in the names of all the gods at once, Upon what meat doth this our Caesar feed, That he is grown so great? Age, thou art shamed! Rome, thou hast lost the breed of noble bloods! When went there by an age, since the great flood, But it was famed with more than with one man? When could they say till now, that talked of Rome, That her wide walls encompassed but one man? Now is it Rome indeed and room enough, When there is in it but one only man.

F-D: Grammar and Vocabulary Notes

This passage demonstrates the Elizabethan belief in the power of names—that to “conjure with” a name is to invoke genuine magical force. Cassius puns on “name,” “sound,” and “fame,” all relating to vocalization and calling. The climactic pun on “Rome” and “room” was a perfect homophone in Original Pronunciation (/ɹuːm/ for both), making Cassius’s bitter joke land with devastating clarity.

The phrase “in the names of all the gods” shows “call” operating implicitly—to speak the gods’ names is to call upon them. “That talked of Rome” uses the relative “that” rather than “who,” a common Elizabethan construction.

“Doth become the mouth” employs “doth” as the auxiliary for third-person singular, the formal variant competing with “does.” “Thou hast” and “thou art” demonstrate the familiar second person addressing Rome directly, personified as a declining matron who has lost her noble offspring.

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GENRE SECTION: Dramatic Dialogue — A Scene of Summoning

A young apprentice is taught by an elderly alchemist how to call spirits properly. The scene explores the mystical dimensions of “calling” in Elizabethan thought.

Part A: Interlinear Construed Text

78.16a Master I know not how to call these spirits forth

78.16b Master /maːstəɹ/ master-VOC I /əɪ/ I know /noː/ know not /nɔt/ NEG how /haʊ/ how to /tuː/ to call /kɔːl/ call these /ðiːz/ these spirits /spɪɹɪts/ spirits forth /fɔːɹθ/ forth

78.17a Thou must call them by their proper names boy

78.17b Thou /ðaʊ/ thou must /mʊst/ must call /kɔːl/ call them /ðɛm/ them by /bəɪ/ by their /ðɛːɹ/ their proper /pɹɔpəɹ/ proper names /neːmz/ names boy /bɔɪ/ boy-VOC

78.18a And what if they will not answer when I call

78.18b And /and/ and what /ʍat/ what if /ɪf/ if they /ðeɪ/ they will /wɪl/ will not /nɔt/ NEG answer /anszəɹ/ answer when /ʍɛn/ when I /əɪ/ I call /kɔːl/ call

78.19a Then thou hast not called them rightly for they must come

78.19b Then /ðɛn/ then thou /ðaʊ/ thou hast /hast/ hast not /nɔt/ NEG called /kɔːld/ called-PAST them /ðɛm/ them rightly /ɹəɪtliː/ rightly for /fɔːɹ/ for they /ðeɪ/ they must /mʊst/ must come /kʊm/ come

78.20a Call softly at the first then raise thy voice

78.20b Call /kɔːl/ call-IMPER softly /sɔftliː/ softly at /at/ at the /ðə/ the first /fəɪɹst/ first then /ðɛn/ then raise /ɹeːz/ raise thy /ðəɪ/ thy voice /vɔɪs/ voice

78.21a The calling of a spirit requireth patience and learning

78.21b The /ðə/ the calling /kɔːlɪŋ/ calling-GERUND of /ɔv/ of a /ə/ a spirit /spɪɹɪt/ spirit requireth /ɹɪkwəɪɹɪθ/ requires patience /peːsɪəns/ patience and /and/ and learning /lɛːɹnɪŋ/ learning

78.22a I have called upon the moon but she heeds me not

78.22b I /əɪ/ I have /hav/ have called /kɔːld/ called-PAST upon /əpɔn/ upon the /ðə/ the moon /muːn/ moon but /bʊt/ but she /ʃeː/ she heeds /hiːdz/ heeds me /meː/ me not /nɔt/ NEG

78.23a The moon is not to be called she calls thee

78.23b The /ðə/ the moon /muːn/ moon is /ɪz/ is not /nɔt/ NEG to /tuː/ to be /biː/ be called /kɔːld/ called-PASS she /ʃeː/ she calls /kɔːlz/ calls thee /ðiː/ thee

78.24a How shall I know when she hath called me master

78.24b How /haʊ/ how shall /ʃal/ shall I /əɪ/ I know /noː/ know when /ʍɛn/ when she /ʃeː/ she hath /haθ/ hath called /kɔːld/ called-PAST me /meː/ me master /maːstəɹ/ master

78.25a Thy heart will tell thee for it trembles at her calling

78.25b Thy /ðəɪ/ thy heart /haːɹt/ heart will /wɪl/ will tell /tɛl/ tell thee /ðiː/ thee for /fɔːɹ/ for it /ɪt/ it trembles /tɹɛmbl̩z/ trembles at /at/ at her /hɛːɹ/ her calling /kɔːlɪŋ/ calling-GERUND

78.26a Some call this art forbidden and ungodly

78.26b Some /sʊm/ some call /kɔːl/ call this /ðɪs/ this art /aːɹt/ art forbidden /fɔːɹbɪdn̩/ forbidden and /and/ and ungodly /ʊngɔdliː/ ungodly

78.27a Let them call it what they will I call it wisdom

78.27b Let /lɛt/ let them /ðɛm/ them call /kɔːl/ call it /ɪt/ it what /ʍat/ what they /ðeɪ/ they will /wɪl/ will I /əɪ/ I call /kɔːl/ call it /ɪt/ it wisdom /wɪzdəm/ wisdom

78.28a Now call upon the eastern wind and bid him enter

78.28b Now /naʊ/ now call /kɔːl/ call-IMPER upon /əpɔn/ upon the /ðə/ the eastern /iːstəɹn/ eastern wind /wɪnd/ wind and /and/ and bid /bɪd/ bid him /ɪm/ him enter /ɛntəɹ/ enter

78.29a I call thee Eurus spirit of the dawn come forth

78.29b I /əɪ/ I call /kɔːl/ call thee /ðiː/ thee Eurus /juːɹəs/ Eurus spirit /spɪɹɪt/ spirit of /ɔv/ of the /ðə/ the dawn /dɔːn/ dawn come /kʊm/ come-IMPER forth /fɔːɹθ/ forth

78.30a See the candle flickers he hath heard thy calling

78.30b See /siː/ see-IMPER the /ðə/ the candle /kandl̩/ candle flickers /flɪkəɹz/ flickers he /hiː/ he hath /haθ/ hath heard /hɛːɹd/ heard thy /ðəɪ/ thy calling /kɔːlɪŋ/ calling-GERUND

Part B: Natural Sentences

78.16 Master, I know not how to call these spirits forth. “Teacher, I do not know how to summon these spirits.”

78.17 Thou must call them by their proper names, boy. “You must summon them using their true names, lad.”

78.18 And what if they will not answer when I call? “But what if they refuse to respond to my summoning?”

78.19 Then thou hast not called them rightly, for they must come. “Then you have not summoned them correctly, for they are bound to appear.”

78.20 Call softly at the first, then raise thy voice. “Begin by calling quietly, then gradually speak louder.”

78.21 The calling of a spirit requireth patience and learning. “Summoning a spirit demands patience and knowledge.”

78.22 I have called upon the moon, but she heeds me not. “I have appealed to the moon, but she ignores me.”

78.23 The moon is not to be called; she calls thee. “The moon cannot be summoned; she is the one who summons you.”

78.24 How shall I know when she hath called me, master? “How will I recognize when she has summoned me, teacher?”

78.25 Thy heart will tell thee, for it trembles at her calling. “Your heart will inform you, for it quakes at her summons.”

78.26 Some call this art forbidden and ungodly. “Some people name this practice forbidden and irreligious.”

78.27 Let them call it what they will; I call it wisdom. “Let them name it as they please; I call it understanding.”

78.28 Now call upon the eastern wind and bid him enter. “Now summon the east wind and invite him inside.”

78.29 I call thee, Eurus, spirit of the dawn—come forth! “I summon you, Eurus, spirit of the morning—appear!”

78.30 See, the candle flickers; he hath heard thy calling. “Look, the candle wavers; he has heard your summons.”

Part C: Elizabethan Text Only

78.16 Master, I know not how to call these spirits forth.

78.17 Thou must call them by their proper names, boy.

78.18 And what if they will not answer when I call?

78.19 Then thou hast not called them rightly, for they must come.

78.20 Call softly at the first, then raise thy voice.

78.21 The calling of a spirit requireth patience and learning.

78.22 I have called upon the moon, but she heeds me not.

78.23 The moon is not to be called; she calls thee.

78.24 How shall I know when she hath called me, master?

78.25 Thy heart will tell thee, for it trembles at her calling.

78.26 Some call this art forbidden and ungodly.

78.27 Let them call it what they will; I call it wisdom.

78.28 Now call upon the eastern wind and bid him enter.

78.29 I call thee, Eurus, spirit of the dawn—come forth!

78.30 See, the candle flickers; he hath heard thy calling.

Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section

This dialogue demonstrates several advanced uses of “call” within Elizabethan dramatic convention:

The Gerund “Calling”: Examples 78.21, 78.25, and 78.30 use “calling” as a verbal noun. “The calling of a spirit” treats the action as a thing; “at her calling” uses it as the object of a preposition; “thy calling” shows possession of the action.

Passive Voice: In 78.23, “The moon is not to be called” employs the passive infinitive, a construction emphasizing that the moon resists being the object of the verb.

Double “Call” for Contrast: In 78.27, “Let them call it what they will; I call it wisdom,” the verb appears twice with different subjects and objects, creating rhetorical balance and philosophical opposition.

Direct Address with Vocatives: 78.16 “Master” and 78.17 “boy” show the vocative case—calling someone by their role or status. The master-apprentice relationship is encoded in how they address each other.

Imperative Mood: 78.20, 78.28, and 78.29 use imperative “call” for commands. “Call softly” directs the manner; “call upon” specifies the target; “I call thee, Eurus” shifts to declarative performative—saying “I call” performs the act of calling.

Pronouns Throughout: The dialogue carefully maintains thou/thee for the apprentice (intimate, lower status) while the apprentice addresses his master with respectful distance. The spirits receive “they/them” until named individually (Eurus becomes “he”).

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PRONUNCIATION GUIDE

Key Pronunciations with IPA:

call /kɔːl/ — rounded back vowel, fully pronounced final L called /kɔːld/ — past tense with dental suffix calling /kɔːlɪŋ/ — gerund/present participle callest /kɔːlɪst/ — second person singular familiar calleth /kɔːlɪθ/ — third person singular (formal/archaic)

Words with Period -tion Pronunciation:

apparition /apəɹɪsɪən/ — four syllables, not three succession /sʊksɛsɪən/ — three syllables question /kwɛstɪən/ — stressed first syllable

Common Pronunciation Errors for Modern Learners:

Modern speakers tend to drop the R in words like “forth” /fɔːɹθ/, “heart” /haːɹt/, and “master” /maːstəɹ/. Elizabethan English was fully rhotic—all R’s were pronounced.

The word “hour” had H-dropping: /oːɹ/, homophonous with “ore.” This explains Shakespeare’s “hour/whore” puns.

“Thou” is /ðaʊ/, not /θaʊ/—the initial sound is voiced TH as in “the,” not voiceless TH as in “think.”

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ABOUT THIS COURSE

This Elizabethan English course follows the Latinum Institute methodology, which has been creating language-learning materials since 2006. The construed interlinear text format—presenting each word with its pronunciation and grammatical function—allows autodidact learners to absorb vocabulary and syntax simultaneously.

Early Modern English, while ancestral to our modern tongue, presents genuine challenges for contemporary readers. The archaic pronoun system (thou/thee/thy versus you/your), the verb inflections (-est, -eth), and the unfamiliar vocabulary all require systematic study. This course treats Elizabethan English as a living language to be learned through immersion in authentic patterns.

The Latinum Institute Approach:

Each lesson focuses on a single high-frequency word, presenting it in multiple contexts through thirty examples. The interlinear glossing removes the barrier between reader and text, while the natural sentence translations provide idiomatic guidance. The literary citations demonstrate authentic period usage.

Why Learn Elizabethan English?

Shakespeare’s works remain central to English literary culture. Understanding Early Modern English unlocks not only the plays and sonnets but also the King James Bible, Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, John Donne, and the entire Renaissance corpus. The language shaped modern English idiom—countless phrases we use daily originated in this period.

Trust Pilot Reviews: https://uk.trustpilot.com/review/latinum.org.uk

Course Index:

https://latinum.substack.com/p/index

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✓ Lesson 78 Elizabethan English complete

Should — The Modal of Obligation, Probability, and Conditionality

INTRODUCTION

Welcome to Lesson 77 of the Elizabethan English course. This lesson examines should, a modal auxiliary verb of supreme importance in Early Modern English, expressing obligation, probability, conditionality, and polite suggestion. In Shakespeare’s age, should performed duties now often divided between several constructions, making it a cornerstone of elegant Tudor speech.

Course Index:

https://latinum.substack.com/p/index

FAQ: What does “should” mean in Elizabethan English?

In Early Modern English (c. 1550–1650), should functions as the past tense of shall and serves multiple modal purposes: expressing moral obligation (”thou shouldst honour thy father”), probability or expectation (”he should arrive ere nightfall”), conditionality (”if thou shouldst fail”), and polite or tentative suggestion (”I should think it best”). Unlike modern usage, Elizabethan should frequently appears in that-clauses after verbs of command, request, and emotion, where contemporary English might use subjunctive or indicative forms.

In this lesson, you will encounter should in fifteen diverse sentences demonstrating its grammatical flexibility, followed by fifteen additional examples in a dramatic dialogue befitting the theatrical conventions of the Globe.

Key Takeaways

• Should expresses obligation weaker than must but stronger than might

• Period pronunciation reflects Early Modern phonology, including the /sjən/ pronunciation of -tion endings

• Shouldst and shouldest are forms used with thou (second person singular informal)

• Should frequently pairs with perfect infinitives (should have done)

• Conditional and subjunctive uses of should pervade Elizabethan prose and verse

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PRONUNCIATION GUIDE FOR ELIZABETHAN ENGLISH

General Principles of Early Modern English Phonology

Elizabethan pronunciation differs substantially from modern Received Pronunciation. The Great Vowel Shift was still in progress, yielding sounds intermediate between Middle English and contemporary speech.

Key Pronunciation Features

Consonants:

• kn- pronounced /kn/ (not modern /n/): knight = /kniːt/

• gn- pronounced /gn/: gnaw = /gnɔː/

• wr- pronounced /wr/: write = /wriːt/

• -tion pronounced /sjən/ (not modern /ʃən/): nation = /ˈneɪ.sjən/

• r is rhotic (always pronounced), often trilled or tapped

Vowels:

• Long a in name = /nɛːm/ (more open than modern)

• Long i in life = /ləif/ transitioning toward /laɪf/

• Long u in house = /huːs/ transitioning toward /haʊs/

• oo in blood sometimes rhymed with good

For “should”:

• Elizabethan: /ʃuld/ or /ʃʊld/

• The vowel remained relatively stable through the Great Vowel Shift

Pronoun Forms with “Should”

I should, thou shouldst/shouldest, he/she/it should, we should, ye should, they should

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SECTION A: INTERLINEAR CONSTRUED TEXT

77.1a Thou shouldst obey thy father in all things.

77.1b Thou /ðaʊ/ thou-NOM.SG shouldst /ʃʊldst/ should-2SG obey /əˈbeɪ/ obey-INF thy /ðaɪ/ thy-POSS father /ˈfɑː.ðər/ father-ACC in /ɪn/ in-PREP all /ɔːl/ all-DET things /θɪŋgz/ thing-PL

77.2a The king should receive these tidings ere sundown.

77.2b The /ðə/ the-ART king /kɪŋg/ king-NOM should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD receive /rɪˈsiːv/ receive-INF these /ðiːz/ these-DEM tidings /ˈtaɪ.dɪŋgz/ tiding-PL ere /ɛːr/ before-CONJ sundown /ˈsʌn.daʊn/ sundown-ACC

77.3a What should I say to such accusation?

77.3b What /hwɑːt/ what-INTERROG should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD I /aɪ/ I-NOM say /seɪ/ say-INF to /tuː/ to-PREP such /sʌtʃ/ such-DET accusation /ˌak.ju.ˈzeɪ.sjən/ accusation-DAT

77.4a If he should fail, all our hopes perish.

77.4b If /ɪf/ if-CONJ he /hiː/ he-NOM should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD fail /feɪl/ fail-INF all /ɔːl/ all-DET our /aʊr/ our-POSS hopes /hoːps/ hope-PL perish /ˈpe.rɪʃ/ perish-3PL

77.5a The villain should have suffered for his treachery.

77.5b The /ðə/ the-ART villain /ˈvɪ.lən/ villain-NOM should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD have /hav/ have-AUX suffered /ˈsʌ.fərd/ suffer-PTCP for /fɔːr/ for-PREP his /hɪz/ his-POSS treachery /ˈtre.tʃə.ri/ treachery-ACC

77.6a She should be sixteen years of age this midsummer.

77.6b She /ʃiː/ she-NOM should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD be /biː/ be-INF sixteen /sɪkˈstiːn/ sixteen-NUM years /jɪːrz/ year-PL of /ɒv/ of-PREP age /eɪdʒ/ age-GEN this /ðɪs/ this-DET midsummer /ˈmɪd.sʌ.mər/ midsummer-ACC

77.7a I should think it strange if thou refusest.

77.7b I /aɪ/ I-NOM should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD think /θɪŋk/ think-INF it /ɪt/ it-ACC strange /streɪndʒ/ strange-ADJ if /ɪf/ if-CONJ thou /ðaʊ/ thou-NOM refusest /rɪˈfjuː.zɪst/ refuse-2SG.PRES

77.8a They should not tarry where danger lurketh.

77.8b They /ðeɪ/ they-NOM should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD not /nɒt/ not-NEG tarry /ˈta.ri/ tarry-INF where /hwɛːr/ where-ADV danger /ˈdeɪn.dʒər/ danger-NOM lurketh /ˈlʌr.kɪθ/ lurk-3SG.PRES

77.9a That we should meet thus seemeth fate’s design.

77.9b That /ðat/ that-CONJ we /wiː/ we-NOM should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD meet /miːt/ meet-INF thus /ðʌs/ thus-ADV seemeth /ˈsiː.mɪθ/ seem-3SG fate’s /feɪts/ fate-POSS design /dɪˈzaɪn/ design-NOM

77.10a Shouldst thou desire instruction, seek the scholar.

77.10b Shouldst /ʃʊldst/ should-2SG thou /ðaʊ/ thou-NOM desire /dɪˈzaɪr/ desire-INF instruction /ɪnˈstrʌk.sjən/ instruction-ACC seek /siːk/ seek-IMP the /ðə/ the-ART scholar /ˈskɒ.lər/ scholar-ACC

77.11a The messenger should have arrived three days past.

77.11b The /ðə/ the-ART messenger /ˈme.sɪn.dʒər/ messenger-NOM should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD have /hav/ have-AUX arrived /əˈraɪvd/ arrive-PTCP three /θriː/ three-NUM days /deɪz/ day-PL past /pɑːst/ past-ADV

77.12a He commanded that no man should enter.

77.12b He /hiː/ he-NOM commanded /kəˈmɑːn.dɪd/ command-PAST that /ðat/ that-CONJ no /noː/ no-DET man /man/ man-NOM should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD enter /ˈen.tər/ enter-INF

77.13a A gentleman should keep his word inviolate.

77.13b A /ə/ a-ART gentleman /ˈdʒen.tl̩.man/ gentleman-NOM should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD keep /kiːp/ keep-INF his /hɪz/ his-POSS word /wʌrd/ word-ACC inviolate /ɪnˈvaɪ.ə.lət/ inviolate-ADJ

77.14a Why should they fear when innocence protecteth?

77.14b Why /hwaɪ/ why-INTERROG should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD they /ðeɪ/ they-NOM fear /fɪːr/ fear-INF when /hwen/ when-CONJ innocence /ˈɪ.nə.səns/ innocence-NOM protecteth /prəˈtek.tɪθ/ protect-3SG.PRES

77.15a The queen decreed that celebration should commence.

77.15b The /ðə/ the-ART queen /kwiːn/ queen-NOM decreed /dɪˈkriːd/ decree-PAST that /ðat/ that-CONJ celebration /ˌse.lɪˈbreɪ.sjən/ celebration-NOM should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD commence /kəˈmens/ commence-INF

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SECTION B: NATURAL SENTENCES

77.1 Thou shouldst obey thy father in all things. “You should obey your father in all matters.”

77.2 The king should receive these tidings ere sundown. “The king ought to receive this news before sundown.”

77.3 What should I say to such accusation? “What can I possibly say to such an accusation?”

77.4 If he should fail, all our hopes perish. “If he were to fail, all our hopes would perish.”

77.5 The villain should have suffered for his treachery. “The villain ought to have suffered for his treachery.”

77.6 She should be sixteen years of age this midsummer. “She will probably be sixteen years old this midsummer.”

77.7 I should think it strange if thou refusest. “I would think it strange if you were to refuse.”

77.8 They should not tarry where danger lurketh. “They ought not to linger where danger lurks.”

77.9 That we should meet thus seemeth fate’s design. “That we should meet in this way seems to be fate’s design.”

77.10 Shouldst thou desire instruction, seek the scholar. “Should you desire instruction, seek out the scholar.”

77.11 The messenger should have arrived three days past. “The messenger ought to have arrived three days ago.”

77.12 He commanded that no man should enter. “He commanded that no man was to enter.”

77.13 A gentleman should keep his word inviolate. “A gentleman ought to keep his word sacred.”

77.14 Why should they fear when innocence protecteth? “Why should they fear when innocence protects them?”

77.15 The queen decreed that celebration should commence. “The queen decreed that the celebration was to begin.”

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SECTION C: ELIZABETHAN TEXT ONLY

77.1 Thou shouldst obey thy father in all things.

77.2 The king should receive these tidings ere sundown.

77.3 What should I say to such accusation?

77.4 If he should fail, all our hopes perish.

77.5 The villain should have suffered for his treachery.

77.6 She should be sixteen years of age this midsummer.

77.7 I should think it strange if thou refusest.

77.8 They should not tarry where danger lurketh.

77.9 That we should meet thus seemeth fate’s design.

77.10 Shouldst thou desire instruction, seek the scholar.

77.11 The messenger should have arrived three days past.

77.12 He commanded that no man should enter.

77.13 A gentleman should keep his word inviolate.

77.14 Why should they fear when innocence protecteth?

77.15 The queen decreed that celebration should commence.

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SECTION D: GRAMMAR EXPLANATION

These are the grammar rules for “should” in Elizabethan English.

1. Basic Function

Should functions as the past tense of the modal verb shall and as an independent modal expressing obligation, probability, or conditionality. Unlike modern English, Elizabethan should frequently appears in subordinate clauses where contemporary speakers might use other constructions.

2. Conjugation with Personal Pronouns

First person singular: I should /aɪ ʃʊld/ Second person singular (informal): thou shouldst /ðaʊ ʃʊldst/ or thou shouldest /ðaʊ ˈʃʊl.dɪst/ Third person singular: he/she/it should /hiː ʃʊld/ First person plural: we should /wiː ʃʊld/ Second person plural or formal singular: ye/you should /jiː ʃʊld/ Third person plural: they should /ðeɪ ʃʊld/

The form shouldst attaches directly to thou, while the longer shouldest appears occasionally in verse or formal prose for metrical reasons.

3. Semantic Functions

Obligation (weaker than must): “A gentleman should keep his word” — expressing moral duty or expected behaviour.

Probability or expectation: “She should be sixteen years of age” — indicating what is likely or expected to be true.

Conditionality: “If he should fail” — introducing a conditional or hypothetical scenario, often equivalent to “were to.”

Tentative suggestion: “I should think it strange” — softening an assertion or opinion.

Mandative clauses: “He commanded that no man should enter” — following verbs of command, request, or decree, where modern English might use a bare infinitive or that-clause with indicative.

4. Perfect Infinitive Constructions

Should have + past participle expresses unrealized obligation or expectation in the past:

“The messenger should have arrived” — the messenger was expected to arrive but (apparently) did not. “The villain should have suffered” — the villain deserved punishment but (perhaps) escaped it.

5. Interrogative and Negative Forms

Questions invert subject and modal: “Shouldst thou desire...?” “What should I say?” Negation places not after the modal: “They should not tarry”

6. Common Mistakes for Modern Learners

Forgetting the -st/-est ending with thou: Incorrect “thou should” → Correct “thou shouldst” Confusing conditional should with obligation should: Context determines meaning Over-pronouncing: Elizabethan should maintains /ʊ/, not diphthongized

7. The -tion Pronunciation

In words like accusation, instruction, celebration, the -tion suffix was pronounced /sjən/ in Elizabethan times, not the modern /ʃən/. Thus:

• accusation: /ˌak.ju.ˈzeɪ.sjən/

• instruction: /ɪnˈstrʌk.sjən/

• celebration: /ˌse.lɪˈbreɪ.sjən/

This pronunciation derives from the Old French /sjon/, which had not yet fully coalesced to /ʃ/ through yod-coalescence.

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SECTION E: CULTURAL CONTEXT

Thou and You: Social Dynamics

When using should with second-person pronouns, Elizabethan speakers navigated complex social territory. Thou shouldst (with its intimate or inferior-addressing thou) implied familiarity, affection, or occasionally contempt. Parents might say “thou shouldst” to children; lovers to one another; masters to servants. The formal you should marked respect, distance, or equality among gentlefolk.

Obligation and Honour

The phrase “a gentleman should” carried tremendous weight in Tudor society. To say what a gentleman should do invoked an entire code of honour, comportment, and class expectation. Failing what one should do risked not merely disapproval but social death.

Theatrical Usage

On the Elizabethan stage, should frequently signals dramatic irony or foreshadowing. When a character says “if he should fail,” the audience often knows that failure is imminent. Conditional should creates suspense and anticipation.

Regional Variation

While London usage standardized many grammatical forms through printing, provincial dialects retained variations. Northern speakers sometimes preserved older forms or exhibited different vowel qualities in should. However, the prestige of court and stage promoted the London standard.

Mandative Should

The construction “he commanded that X should do” persisted longer in English than in some continental languages and remains in formal British English today. This “mandative should” reflects the persistence of subjunctive-like constructions expressing commands, wishes, or necessity.

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SECTION F: LITERARY CITATION

From William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Act I, Scene 3 (c. 1600)

Polonius advises his son Laertes before the young man’s departure for France.

F-A: Interlinear Construed Text

Give /gɪv/ give-IMP every /ˈev.ri/ every-DET man /man/ man-DAT thy /ðaɪ/ thy-POSS ear /ɪːr/ ear-ACC but /bʌt/ but-CONJ few /fjuː/ few-DET thy /ðaɪ/ thy-POSS voice /vɔɪs/ voice-ACC

Take /teɪk/ take-IMP each /iːtʃ/ each-DET man’s /manz/ man-POSS censure /ˈsen.sjʊr/ censure-ACC but /bʌt/ but-CONJ reserve /rɪˈzɜːrv/ reserve-IMP thy /ðaɪ/ thy-POSS judgment /ˈdʒʌdʒ.mənt/ judgment-ACC

Costly /ˈkɒst.li/ costly-ADJ thy /ðaɪ/ thy-POSS habit /ˈha.bɪt/ habit-NOM as /az/ as-CONJ thy /ðaɪ/ thy-POSS purse /pʌrs/ purse-NOM can /kan/ can-MOD buy /baɪ/ buy-INF

But /bʌt/ but-CONJ not /nɒt/ not-NEG expressed /ɪkˈsprest/ express-PTCP in /ɪn/ in-PREP fancy /ˈfan.si/ fancy-ACC

Neither /ˈnɪː.ðər/ neither-CONJ a /ə/ a-ART borrower /ˈbɒ.roʊ.ər/ borrower-NOM nor /nɔːr/ nor-CONJ a /ə/ a-ART lender /ˈlen.dər/ lender-NOM be /biː/ be-IMP

For /fɔːr/ for-CONJ loan /loːn/ loan-NOM oft /ɒft/ oft-ADV loseth /ˈluː.zɪθ/ lose-3SG both /boːθ/ both-DET itself /ɪtˈself/ itself-REFL and /and/ and-CONJ friend /frend/ friend-ACC

This /ðɪs/ this-DET above /əˈbʌv/ above-PREP all /ɔːl/ all-DET to /tuː/ to-PREP thine /ðaɪn/ thine-POSS own /oːn/ own-ADJ self /self/ self-DAT be /biː/ be-IMP true /truː/ true-ADJ

And /and/ and-CONJ it /ɪt/ it-NOM must /mʌst/ must-MOD follow /ˈfɒ.loʊ/ follow-INF as /az/ as-CONJ the /ðə/ the-ART night /niːt/ night-NOM the /ðə/ the-ART day /deɪ/ day-ACC

Thou /ðaʊ/ thou-NOM canst /kanst/ can-2SG not /nɒt/ not-NEG then /ðen/ then-ADV be /biː/ be-INF false /fɔːls/ false-ADJ to /tuː/ to-PREP any /ˈe.ni/ any-DET man /man/ man-DAT

F-B: Authentic Text with Translation

Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice; Take each man’s censure, but reserve thy judgment. Costly thy habit as thy purse can buy, But not expressed in fancy; rich, not gaudy; Neither a borrower nor a lender be; For loan oft loseth both itself and friend. This above all: to thine own self be true, And it must follow, as the night the day, Thou canst not then be false to any man.

“Listen to every man, but speak to few; consider each man’s criticism, but keep your own judgment. Let your clothing be as expensive as your purse allows, but not flashy—rich, not gaudy. Be neither a borrower nor a lender, for a loan often loses both itself and the friend. Above all else: be true to yourself, and it must follow, as night follows day, that you cannot then be false to any man.”

F-C: Authentic Text Only

Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice; Take each man’s censure, but reserve thy judgment. Costly thy habit as thy purse can buy, But not expressed in fancy; rich, not gaudy; Neither a borrower nor a lender be; For loan oft loseth both itself and friend. This above all: to thine own self be true, And it must follow, as the night the day, Thou canst not then be false to any man.

F-D: Grammar and Vocabulary Notes

Though this passage uses must and canst rather than should, it illustrates the broader modal system in which should participates. Polonius’s advice expresses what Laertes should do, though framed through imperatives and other modals.

• censure /ˈsen.sjʊr/: judgment, opinion (not necessarily negative in this period)

• habit: clothing, attire

• expressed in fancy: made ostentatious

• loseth: third person singular present with -eth ending

• thine own self: emphatic possessive before vowel

The -eth endings (loseth) reflect the coexistence of older and newer verb forms; Shakespeare uses both -eth and -es freely.

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GENRE SECTION: DRAMATIC DIALOGUE

A confrontation between Lord Ashworth and his daughter Eleanor regarding her secret betrothal

Part A: Interlinear Construed Text

77.16a ASHWORTH: Daughter, thou shouldst have told me of this matter.

77.16b Daughter /ˈdɔː.tər/ daughter-VOC thou /ðaʊ/ thou-NOM shouldst /ʃʊldst/ should-2SG have /hav/ have-AUX told /toːld/ tell-PTCP me /miː/ me-DAT of /ɒv/ of-PREP this /ðɪs/ this-DET matter /ˈma.tər/ matter-GEN

77.17a ELEANOR: I feared thy wrath, and should I not have cause?

77.17b I /aɪ/ I-NOM feared /fɪːrd/ fear-PAST thy /ðaɪ/ thy-POSS wrath /rɔːθ/ wrath-ACC and /and/ and-CONJ should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD I /aɪ/ I-NOM not /nɒt/ not-NEG have /hav/ have-INF cause /kɔːz/ cause-ACC

77.18a ASHWORTH: What cause? Should any child fear honest counsel?

77.18b What /hwɑːt/ what-INTERROG cause /kɔːz/ cause-NOM Should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD any /ˈe.ni/ any-DET child /tʃaɪld/ child-NOM fear /fɪːr/ fear-INF honest /ˈɒ.nɪst/ honest-ADJ counsel /ˈkaʊn.səl/ counsel-ACC

77.19a ELEANOR: Should counsel come with threats of disinheritance?

77.19b Should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD counsel /ˈkaʊn.səl/ counsel-NOM come /kʌm/ come-INF with /wɪθ/ with-PREP threats /θrets/ threat-PL of /ɒv/ of-PREP disinheritance /ˌdɪs.ɪnˈhe.rɪ.təns/ disinheritance-GEN

77.20a ASHWORTH: Thou shouldst not have betrayed our family’s trust.

77.20b Thou /ðaʊ/ thou-NOM shouldst /ʃʊldst/ should-2SG not /nɒt/ not-NEG have /hav/ have-AUX betrayed /bɪˈtreɪd/ betray-PTCP our /aʊr/ our-POSS family’s /ˈfa.mɪ.liz/ family-POSS trust /trʌst/ trust-ACC

77.21a ELEANOR: Should love be counted treachery in this household?

77.21b Should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD love /lʌv/ love-NOM be /biː/ be-INF counted /ˈkaʊn.tɪd/ count-PTCP treachery /ˈtre.tʃə.ri/ treachery-NOM in /ɪn/ in-PREP this /ðɪs/ this-DET household /ˈhaʊs.hoːld/ household-LOC

77.22a ASHWORTH: The match is unsuitable; thou shouldst know this.

77.22b The /ðə/ the-ART match /matʃ/ match-NOM is /ɪz/ be-3SG unsuitable /ʌnˈsjuː.tə.bl̩/ unsuitable-ADJ thou /ðaʊ/ thou-NOM shouldst /ʃʊldst/ should-2SG know /noː/ know-INF this /ðɪs/ this-ACC

77.23a ELEANOR: Should station matter more than virtue or affection?

77.23b Should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD station /ˈsteɪ.sjən/ station-NOM matter /ˈma.tər/ matter-INF more /mɔːr/ more-ADV than /ðan/ than-CONJ virtue /ˈvɜːr.tjuː/ virtue-NOM or /ɔːr/ or-CONJ affection /əˈfek.sjən/ affection-NOM

77.24a ASHWORTH: A daughter should respect her father’s wisdom.

77.24b A /ə/ a-ART daughter /ˈdɔː.tər/ daughter-NOM should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD respect /rɪˈspekt/ respect-INF her /hɜːr/ her-POSS father’s /ˈfɑː.ðərz/ father-POSS wisdom /ˈwɪz.dəm/ wisdom-ACC

77.25a ELEANOR: And should a father not hearken to his daughter’s heart?

77.25b And /and/ and-CONJ should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD a /ə/ a-ART father /ˈfɑː.ðər/ father-NOM not /nɒt/ not-NEG hearken /ˈhɑːr.kən/ hearken-INF to /tuː/ to-PREP his /hɪz/ his-POSS daughter’s /ˈdɔː.tərz/ daughter-POSS heart /hɑːrt/ heart-DAT

77.26a ASHWORTH: If I should consent, what assurance have I?

77.26b If /ɪf/ if-CONJ I /aɪ/ I-NOM should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD consent /kənˈsent/ consent-INF what /hwɑːt/ what-INTERROG assurance /əˈʃʊr.əns/ assurance-ACC have /hav/ have-1SG I /aɪ/ I-NOM

77.27a ELEANOR: That he should prove worthy of thy good opinion.

77.27b That /ðat/ that-CONJ he /hiː/ he-NOM should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD prove /pruːv/ prove-INF worthy /ˈwʌr.ði/ worthy-ADJ of /ɒv/ of-PREP thy /ðaɪ/ thy-POSS good /guːd/ good-ADJ opinion /əˈpɪn.jən/ opinion-GEN

77.28a ASHWORTH: Should he fail this trial, the betrothal ends.

77.28b Should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD he /hiː/ he-NOM fail /feɪl/ fail-INF this /ðɪs/ this-DET trial /ˈtraɪ.əl/ trial-ACC the /ðə/ the-ART betrothal /bɪˈtroː.θəl/ betrothal-NOM ends /endz/ end-3SG

77.29a ELEANOR: It shall be as thou sayest; he should not disappoint.

77.29b It /ɪt/ it-NOM shall /ʃal/ shall-MOD be /biː/ be-INF as /az/ as-CONJ thou /ðaʊ/ thou-NOM sayest /ˈseɪ.ɪst/ say-2SG he /hiː/ he-NOM should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD not /nɒt/ not-NEG disappoint /ˌdɪs.əˈpɔɪnt/ disappoint-INF

77.30a ASHWORTH: Then let it be resolved; time should reveal all truth.

77.30b Then /ðen/ then-ADV let /let/ let-IMP it /ɪt/ it-ACC be /biː/ be-INF resolved /rɪˈzɒlvd/ resolve-PTCP time /taɪm/ time-NOM should /ʃʊld/ should-MOD reveal /rɪˈviːl/ reveal-INF all /ɔːl/ all-DET truth /truːθ/ truth-ACC

Part B: Natural Sentences

77.16 ASHWORTH: Daughter, thou shouldst have told me of this matter. “Daughter, you should have told me about this matter.”

77.17 ELEANOR: I feared thy wrath, and should I not have cause? “I feared your anger—and should I not have reason to?”

77.18 ASHWORTH: What cause? Should any child fear honest counsel? “What reason? Should any child fear honest advice?”

77.19 ELEANOR: Should counsel come with threats of disinheritance? “Should advice come accompanied by threats of being disowned?”

77.20 ASHWORTH: Thou shouldst not have betrayed our family’s trust. “You should not have betrayed our family’s trust.”

77.21 ELEANOR: Should love be counted treachery in this household? “Should love be considered treachery in this house?”

77.22 ASHWORTH: The match is unsuitable; thou shouldst know this. “The match is inappropriate; you should know this.”

77.23 ELEANOR: Should station matter more than virtue or affection? “Should social rank matter more than virtue or love?”

77.24 ASHWORTH: A daughter should respect her father’s wisdom. “A daughter ought to respect her father’s wisdom.”

77.25 ELEANOR: And should a father not hearken to his daughter’s heart? “And should a father not listen to his daughter’s heart?”

77.26 ASHWORTH: If I should consent, what assurance have I? “If I were to consent, what guarantee would I have?”

77.27 ELEANOR: That he should prove worthy of thy good opinion. “That he shall prove himself worthy of your good opinion.”

77.28 ASHWORTH: Should he fail this trial, the betrothal ends. “If he fails this test, the engagement ends.”

77.29 ELEANOR: It shall be as thou sayest; he should not disappoint. “It shall be as you say; he should not disappoint.”

77.30 ASHWORTH: Then let it be resolved; time should reveal all truth. “Then let it be settled; time should reveal all truth.”

Part C: Elizabethan Text Only

77.16 ASHWORTH: Daughter, thou shouldst have told me of this matter.

77.17 ELEANOR: I feared thy wrath, and should I not have cause?

77.18 ASHWORTH: What cause? Should any child fear honest counsel?

77.19 ELEANOR: Should counsel come with threats of disinheritance?

77.20 ASHWORTH: Thou shouldst not have betrayed our family’s trust.

77.21 ELEANOR: Should love be counted treachery in this household?

77.22 ASHWORTH: The match is unsuitable; thou shouldst know this.

77.23 ELEANOR: Should station matter more than virtue or affection?

77.24 ASHWORTH: A daughter should respect her father’s wisdom.

77.25 ELEANOR: And should a father not hearken to his daughter’s heart?

77.26 ASHWORTH: If I should consent, what assurance have I?

77.27 ELEANOR: That he should prove worthy of thy good opinion.

77.28 ASHWORTH: Should he fail this trial, the betrothal ends.

77.29 ELEANOR: It shall be as thou sayest; he should not disappoint.

77.30 ASHWORTH: Then let it be resolved; time should reveal all truth.

Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section

This dialogue showcases multiple functions of should in dramatic confrontation:

Obligation (unfulfilled): “Thou shouldst have told me” — past obligation that was not met

Rhetorical questions: “Should I not have cause?” — using should to argue that something is reasonable

Conditional/hypothetical: “If I should consent” — tentative willingness dependent on conditions

Expectation: “He should not disappoint” — expressing confidence in future behaviour

Future determination: “Time should reveal” — prediction or expectation about what will happen

The dialogue also demonstrates the thou/you distinction: Ashworth uses thou to his daughter (intimate, parental authority), while both discuss the absent suitor with he (third person).

Note the Elizabethan pronunciation of:

• station /ˈsteɪ.sjən/ — with /sj/ not /ʃ/

• affection /əˈfek.sjən/ — likewise with /sj/

• opinion /əˈpɪn.jən/ — with clear /j/

• assurance /əˈʃʊr.əns/ — already shifted to /ʃ/ in this position

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PRONUNCIATION SUMMARY

Key Words with Period Pronunciation

• should /ʃʊld/

• shouldst /ʃʊldst/

• accusation /ˌak.ju.ˈzeɪ.sjən/

• instruction /ɪnˈstrʌk.sjən/

• celebration /ˌse.lɪˈbreɪ.sjən/

• station /ˈsteɪ.sjən/

• affection /əˈfek.sjən/

• disinheritance /ˌdɪs.ɪnˈhe.rɪ.təns/

• wrath /rɔːθ/

• hearken /ˈhɑːr.kən/

The -tion Suffix in Detail

Modern English pronounces -tion as /ʃən/, but Early Modern English retained /sjən/ from the Old French /sjon/. This yod-coalescence (the blending of /s/ + /j/ into /ʃ/) was ongoing during Shakespeare’s lifetime but incomplete. Actors performing in “Original Pronunciation” productions often use /sjən/ to recreate the authentic Elizabethan soundscape.

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ABOUT THIS COURSE

This lesson belongs to the Elizabethan English series produced by the Latinum Institute, which has been creating language learning materials for autodidacts since 2006. The Institute’s methodology emphasizes construed text presentation, where each word receives individual glossing with pronunciation guidance, enabling learners to absorb grammar and vocabulary simultaneously.

Course Index:

https://latinum.substack.com/p/index

Student Reviews: https://uk.trustpilot.com/review/latinum.org.uk

The interlinear format employed throughout this lesson derives from centuries-old pedagogical tradition, particularly the Hamilton method and various construed text approaches used to teach Latin and Greek. By presenting each word with its pronunciation, grammatical function, and meaning, learners develop intuitive comprehension without relying on rote memorization of rules.

Elizabethan English, though technically Modern English, presents sufficient differences from contemporary usage to benefit from systematic study. The modal verb should, with its various functions and its distinctive second-person singular forms, exemplifies these differences while remaining relevant to understanding Shakespeare, the King James Bible, and other foundational English texts.

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✓ Lesson 77 Elizabethan English complete

Hand — The Bodily Instrument of Action and Will

FAQ: What does “hand” mean in Elizabethan English?

In Early Modern English, as in Shakespeare’s day, “hand” retained its fundamental meaning as the terminal part of the arm, the instrument of grasping, manipulation, and action. However, “hand” carried far richer semantic weight than in modern usage. It signified agency, authorship (one’s “hand” meaning one’s handwriting), assistance (”to lend a hand”), control (”to have the upper hand”), and covenant (giving one’s hand in marriage or oath). The word appears with remarkable frequency in Shakespeare’s works, often bearing metaphorical and metonymic weight far beyond mere anatomy.

This lesson presents the autodidact with fifteen primary examples and fifteen genre examples demonstrating the word “hand” in authentic Elizabethan contexts. Through interlinear construed text with Original Pronunciation (OP) transcription, learners will master both the grammatical deployment and the phonological realization of this essential noun.

Note on Pronunciation: This lesson employs reconstructed Original Pronunciation (OP) based on the scholarship of David Crystal and others. Key features include: rhotic pronunciation (all written “r” sounds are pronounced); the “-tion” suffix as [siən] or [sjən] rather than modern [ʃən]; vowels reflecting the Great Vowel Shift in progress; and consonants pronounced as written rather than palatalized.

Course Index: https://latinum.substack.com/p/index

Key Takeaways

The word “hand” functions as a concrete noun denoting the body part but extends metaphorically to signify agency, assistance, handwriting, and binding agreement. Elizabethan pronunciation retained the rhotic /r/ in words like “heart” and “arm” that modern British English has lost. The plural “hands” follows standard Early Modern patterns with the voiced fricative /z/. Compound expressions such as “at hand,” “by hand,” and “out of hand” carry specialized meanings requiring contextual understanding. Shakespeare and his contemporaries exploited the rich polysemy of “hand” for dramatic and poetic effect.

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SECTION A: INTERLINEAR CONSTRUED TEXT

1.1a Give me thy hand.

1.1b Give /gɪv/ grant me /meː/ to-me thy /ðəɪ/ your hand /hand/ hand

1.2a His hand did shake.

1.2b His /hɪz/ his hand /hand/ hand did /dɪd/ did shake /ʃeːk/ tremble

1.3a She hath a fair hand.

1.3b She /ʃeː/ she hath /haθ/ has a /a/ a fair /fɛːr/ beautiful hand /hand/ hand

1.4a Take her hand in thine.

1.4b Take /teːk/ take her /hɛr/ her hand /hand/ hand in /ɪn/ in thine /ðəɪn/ yours

1.5a The villain’s hand was bloody.

1.5b The /ðə/ the villain’s /ˈvɪlənz/ villain’s hand /hand/ hand was /waz/ was bloody /ˈblʊdi/ bloody

1.6a I know his hand most well.

1.6b I /əɪ/ I know /noː/ know his /hɪz/ his hand /hand/ handwriting most /moːst/ very well /wɛl/ well

1.7a Lend me thy hand, good friend.

1.7b Lend /lɛnd/ lend me /meː/ to-me thy /ðəɪ/ your hand /hand/ assistance good /guːd/ good friend /frɛnd/ friend

1.8a The matter is now at hand.

1.8b The /ðə/ the matter /ˈmatər/ matter is /ɪz/ is now /nəʊ/ now at /at/ at hand /hand/ near

1.9a By mine own hand I wrote this letter.

1.9b By /bəɪ/ by mine /məɪn/ my own /oːn/ own hand /hand/ hand I /əɪ/ I wrote /wroːt/ wrote this /ðɪs/ this letter /ˈlɛtər/ letter

1.10a With heavy hand the tyrant ruled his realm.

1.10b With /wɪθ/ with heavy /ˈhɛvi/ harsh hand /hand/ authority the /ðə/ the tyrant /ˈtəɪrant/ tyrant ruled /ruːld/ ruled his /hɪz/ his realm /rɛːlm/ kingdom

1.11a Fortune hath dealt me a cruel hand.

1.11b Fortune /ˈfɔrtjuːn/ Fortune hath /haθ/ has dealt /dɛlt/ given me /meː/ to-me a /a/ a cruel /ˈkruːəl/ cruel hand /hand/ fate

1.12a The surgeon’s hand must needs be steady.

1.12b The /ðə/ the surgeon’s /ˈsʊrdʒənz/ surgeon’s hand /hand/ hand must /mʊst/ must needs /neːdz/ necessarily be /beː/ be steady /ˈstɛdi/ steady

1.13a I had the upper hand in that disputation.

1.13b I /əɪ/ I had /had/ had the /ðə/ the upper /ˈʊpər/ upper hand /hand/ advantage in /ɪn/ in that /ðat/ that disputation /dɪspjuːˈteːsiən/ debate

1.14a He asked for her hand in marriage.

1.14b He /heː/ he asked /aːskt/ asked for /fɔr/ for her /hɛr/ her hand /hand/ hand in /ɪn/ in marriage /ˈmarɪdʒ/ marriage

1.15a The clock’s hand moved toward the fatal hour.

1.15b The /ðə/ the clock’s /klɔks/ clock’s hand /hand/ hand moved /muːvd/ moved toward /toːˈward/ toward the /ðə/ the fatal /ˈfeːtəl/ fatal hour /əʊr/ hour

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SECTION B: NATURAL SENTENCES

1.1 Give me thy hand.

1.2 His hand did shake.

1.3 She hath a fair hand.

1.4 Take her hand in thine.

1.5 The villain’s hand was bloody.

1.6 I know his hand most well.

1.7 Lend me thy hand, good friend.

1.8 The matter is now at hand.

1.9 By mine own hand I wrote this letter.

1.10 With heavy hand the tyrant ruled his realm.

1.11 Fortune hath dealt me a cruel hand.

1.12 The surgeon’s hand must needs be steady.

1.13 I had the upper hand in that disputation.

1.14 He asked for her hand in marriage.

1.15 The clock’s hand moved toward the fatal hour.

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SECTION C: ELIZABETHAN TEXT ONLY

1.1 Give me thy hand.

1.2 His hand did shake.

1.3 She hath a fair hand.

1.4 Take her hand in thine.

1.5 The villain’s hand was bloody.

1.6 I know his hand most well.

1.7 Lend me thy hand, good friend.

1.8 The matter is now at hand.

1.9 By mine own hand I wrote this letter.

1.10 With heavy hand the tyrant ruled his realm.

1.11 Fortune hath dealt me a cruel hand.

1.12 The surgeon’s hand must needs be steady.

1.13 I had the upper hand in that disputation.

1.14 He asked for her hand in marriage.

1.15 The clock’s hand moved toward the fatal hour.

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SECTION D: GRAMMAR EXPLANATION

The noun “hand” in Elizabethan English follows standard Germanic declension patterns inherited from Middle English, though the case system had largely collapsed by the late sixteenth century. The singular form “hand” /hand/ takes the possessive suffix “-’s” (spelled variously as “’s” or “es” in period texts) to form “hand’s” /handz/. The plural “hands” /handz/ adds the voiced fricative ending, as does the plural possessive “hands’” /handz/.

In Early Modern English, “hand” participates in numerous idiomatic expressions that the autodidact must recognize. The phrase “at hand” signifies proximity in time or space, as in “the hour is at hand.” The expression “by hand” indicates personal execution rather than delegation or mechanical means. “Out of hand” means immediately or without delay, though it could also signify beyond control. “To have the upper hand” denotes advantage or dominance, while “to give one’s hand” extends to betrothal and solemn promise.

The metonymic use of “hand” for handwriting was common, as when one says “I know his hand” meaning “I recognize his handwriting.” This usage reflects the intimate connection between the physical instrument and its characteristic product. Similarly, “hand” could signify authorship, agency, or personal involvement in an action.

Pronunciation in Original Pronunciation (OP) requires attention to several features. The vowel in “hand” was /a/, roughly as in modern “father” but shorter. The final /d/ was fully pronounced. In compound expressions, linking occurred naturally between words, so “at hand” would sound as /at hand/ with clear articulation of both consonants. The word “hands” employs the voiced plural marker /z/ following the voiced consonant /d/.

The second person possessive forms deserve special attention. “Thy hand” /ðəɪ hand/ employs the familiar possessive before consonants, while “thine hand” would appear before vowels or for emphasis. The reflexive “mine own hand” uses the emphatic form of the first person possessive before a vowel, a construction still available but archaic in Shakespeare’s day.

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SECTION E: CULTURAL CONTEXT

The hand occupied a position of profound symbolic significance in Elizabethan culture, functioning as the primary instrument of human agency, the seal of oaths and contracts, and a marker of social status. In an era before widespread literacy, one’s “hand” (handwriting) served as legal identification; forging a hand constituted a serious crime. The phrase “set hand to” meant to sign or authorize, carrying the full weight of personal commitment.

In the theatre, hand gestures formed an essential vocabulary of dramatic expression. Period acting manuals prescribed specific hand positions for various emotions: the open palm extended upward signified supplication; the clenched fist, determination or rage; the hand pressed to the heart, sincerity or grief. Shakespeare’s stage directions frequently reference hands: characters join hands in marriage, clasp hands in alliance, or wash hands in guilt (as Lady Macbeth obsessively attempts).

The marriage ceremony prominently featured the joining of hands, called “handfasting.” This gesture possessed legal as well as religious significance, creating a binding contract. The betrothal—the formal promise to marry—was sealed by clasping right hands before witnesses. To break such a hand-pledge invited social censure and potentially legal consequence.

Medical understanding of the period attributed great importance to the hand as diagnostic instrument. Physicians examined patients’ hands for temperature, moisture, and tremor; the handshake served as preliminary assessment. Surgeons required exceptional manual dexterity, and their skilled hands commanded respect and substantial fees. The phrase “the surgeon’s hand” implied both the physical instrument and the practitioner’s expertise.

Social hierarchy expressed itself through hand-related customs. Offering one’s hand to an inferior to kiss demonstrated gracious condescension. Refusing to shake hands constituted grave insult. The “left-handed” or “sinister” hand carried negative associations, appearing in expressions like “left-handed compliment.” Craft guilds distinguished between “handicraft” (manual labor) and liberal arts, though skilled artisans took pride in their “cunning hand.”

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SECTION F: LITERARY CITATION

From William Shakespeare’s Macbeth, Act II, Scene ii, Lady Macbeth addresses her husband after the murder of King Duncan:

“Go get some water, And wash this filthy witness from your hand.”

In this passage, the hand serves as material evidence of guilt—the “filthy witness” being Duncan’s blood. Shakespeare exploits the concrete literalness of the bloody hand while simultaneously evoking the metaphorical weight of moral stain. Lady Macbeth’s command presumes that physical washing can remove spiritual guilt, a presumption her later sleepwalking scene will devastatingly undermine when she compulsively attempts to cleanse her own hands of imagined blood.

The word “hand” here operates on multiple semantic levels. It denotes the literal body part stained with the king’s blood. It signifies agency—Macbeth’s hand committed the deed. And it anticipates the play’s sustained meditation on the relationship between action and consequence, between the hand’s deed and the soul’s corruption. Shakespeare’s genius lies in making the familiar word resonate with accumulated meaning through dramatic context.

The pronunciation in Original Pronunciation would render this passage with full rhoticity: “water” as /ˈwatər/ with the final /r/ articulated, “your” as /jʊr/ with clear /r/ sound. The word “hand” itself, appearing at the line’s emphatic close, would receive stress and clear articulation of the final /d/, underscoring both the physical instrument and its symbolic burden.

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GENRE SECTION: DESCRIPTIVE TEXT — A PORTRAIT OF THE SURGEON

The following connected passage describes a surgeon of the Elizabethan era, demonstrating the noun “hand” in authentic descriptive context.

2.1a Master Thornbury hath a most excellent hand for surgery.

2.1b Master /ˈmaːstər/ Master Thornbury /ˈθɔrnbʊri/ Thornbury hath /haθ/ has a /a/ a most /moːst/ most excellent /ˈɛksələnt/ excellent hand /hand/ skill for /fɔr/ for surgery /ˈsʊrdʒəri/ surgery

2.2a His hand hath set many a broken bone.

2.2b His /hɪz/ his hand /hand/ hand hath /haθ/ has set /sɛt/ set many /ˈmɛni/ many a /a/ a broken /ˈbroːkən/ broken bone /boːn/ bone

2.3a With steady hand he draws the lancet across the vein.

2.3b With /wɪθ/ with steady /ˈstɛdi/ steady hand /hand/ hand he /heː/ he draws /drɔːz/ draws the /ðə/ the lancet /ˈlansɛt/ lancet across /aˈkrɔs/ across the /ðə/ the vein /veːn/ vein

2.4a The patient doth tremble, yet the surgeon’s hand wavers not.

2.4b The /ðə/ the patient /ˈpeːsiənt/ patient doth /dʊθ/ does tremble /ˈtrɛmbəl/ tremble yet /jɛt/ yet the /ðə/ the surgeon’s /ˈsʊrdʒənz/ surgeon’s hand /hand/ hand wavers /ˈweːvərz/ wavers not /nɔt/ not

2.5a He hath learned his craft at the hand of a master.

2.5b He /heː/ he hath /haθ/ has learned /lɛrnd/ learned his /hɪz/ his craft /kraft/ craft at /at/ at the /ðə/ the hand /hand/ tutelage of /ɔv/ of a /a/ a master /ˈmaːstər/ master

2.6a A surgeon’s hand must know both swiftness and restraint.

2.6b A /a/ a surgeon’s /ˈsʊrdʒənz/ surgeon’s hand /hand/ hand must /mʊst/ must know /noː/ know both /boːθ/ both swiftness /ˈswɪftnɛs/ swiftness and /and/ and restraint /rɪˈstreːnt/ restraint

2.7a In his right hand he holds the instrument of salvation.

2.7b In /ɪn/ in his /hɪz/ his right /rəɪt/ right hand /hand/ hand he /heː/ he holds /hoːldz/ holds the /ðə/ the instrument /ˈɪnstrʊmənt/ instrument of /ɔv/ of salvation /salˈveːsiən/ salvation

2.8a With his left hand he stanches the flow of blood.

2.8b With /wɪθ/ with his /hɪz/ his left /lɛft/ left hand /hand/ hand he /heː/ he stanches /ˈstanʃɪz/ stanches the /ðə/ the flow /floː/ flow of /ɔv/ of blood /bluːd/ blood

2.9a Both hands work in concert, as fingers upon a lute.

2.9b Both /boːθ/ both hands /handz/ hands work /wʊrk/ work in /ɪn/ in concert /ˈkɔnsərt/ concert as /az/ as fingers /ˈfɪŋgərz/ fingers upon /ʊˈpɔn/ upon a /a/ a lute /ljuːt/ lute

2.10a The amputation requires a firm hand and firmer nerve.

2.10b The /ðə/ the amputation /ampjuːˈteːsiən/ amputation requires /rɪˈkwəɪrz/ requires a /a/ a firm /fɛrm/ firm hand /hand/ hand and /and/ and firmer /ˈfɛrmər/ firmer nerve /nɛrv/ nerve

2.11a His hands bear the calluses of ten thousand operations.

2.11b His /hɪz/ his hands /handz/ hands bear /bɛːr/ bear the /ðə/ the calluses /ˈkalʊsɪz/ calluses of /ɔv/ of ten /tɛn/ ten thousand /ˈθəʊzənd/ thousand operations /ɔpəˈreːsiənz/ operations

2.12a He laid his hand upon the fevered brow and pronounced judgment.

2.12b He /heː/ he laid /leːd/ laid his /hɪz/ his hand /hand/ hand upon /ʊˈpɔn/ upon the /ðə/ the fevered /ˈfeːvərd/ fevered brow /brəʊ/ brow and /and/ and pronounced /proːˈnəʊnst/ pronounced judgment /ˈdʒʊdʒmənt/ judgment

2.13a The wound closed beneath his careful hand.

2.13b The /ðə/ the wound /wuːnd/ wound closed /kloːzd/ closed beneath /bɪˈneːθ/ beneath his /hɪz/ his careful /ˈkɛːrfʊl/ careful hand /hand/ hand

2.14a His hand hath restored many from death’s very door.

2.14b His /hɪz/ his hand /hand/ hand hath /haθ/ has restored /rɪˈstɔːrd/ restored many /ˈmɛni/ many from /frɔm/ from death’s /dɛθs/ death’s very /ˈvɛri/ very door /dɔːr/ door

2.15a Such is the gift of a hand guided by knowledge and compassion.

2.15b Such /sʊtʃ/ such is /ɪz/ is the /ðə/ the gift /gɪft/ gift of /ɔv/ of a /a/ a hand /hand/ hand guided /ˈgəɪdɪd/ guided by /bəɪ/ by knowledge /ˈnɔlɪdʒ/ knowledge and /and/ and compassion /kɔmˈpasjən/ compassion

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ABOUT THIS COURSE

This lesson forms part of the Latinum Institute’s Elizabethan English course, designed for autodidact learners seeking authentic engagement with the language of Shakespeare, Marlowe, and their contemporaries. The course employs frequency-based vocabulary instruction, presenting the one thousand most common English words in contexts appropriate to Early Modern usage.

The interlinear construed text method derives from traditional Latin pedagogy, adapted here for the special challenges of historical English. By presenting each word with its Original Pronunciation (OP) transcription and contextual gloss, the method enables learners to internalize both sound and sense simultaneously.

Original Pronunciation reconstruction follows the scholarship of David Crystal, Ben Crystal, and other researchers who have recovered the phonological system of Elizabethan English through analysis of rhymes, puns, spelling variants, and contemporary descriptions. This course marks pronunciation as it would have sounded circa 1600, during the middle of the Great Vowel Shift.

Course Index: https://latinum.substack.com/p/index

Reviews: https://uk.trustpilot.com/review/latinum.org.uk

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End of Lesson 076

Being — Existence, Creature, and Essential Nature

Course Index:

https://latinum.substack.com/p/index

Introduction

What does “being” mean in Elizabethan English?

The word being in Early Modern English carries profound philosophical weight that modern usage has largely forgotten. To Shakespeare and his contemporaries, being signified not merely existence in the passive sense, but the very essence of what a thing is—its fundamental nature, its continued presence in the world, and often, a living creature possessed of soul and substance.

The noun derives from the verb “to be,” and in Elizabethan discourse it operates across three primary semantic domains: first, as existence itself (the state of having reality); second, as a creature or living entity; third, as essential nature or constitution. When Hamlet contemplates “To be or not to be,” he wrestles with being in its most elemental sense—whether to continue existing, whether existence itself possesses meaning.

The Elizabethan pronunciation preserves the long vowel quality that was shifting during the Great Vowel Shift: /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ with a pure, elongated first syllable and fully articulated final nasal. This lesson presents fifteen examples demonstrating being across its semantic range, followed by a soliloquy sequence showcasing the word in dramatic philosophical context.

Key Takeaways:

• Being functions as both abstract concept (existence) and concrete noun (creature)

• Period pronunciation features a longer, purer vowel than modern English

• The word carries philosophical weight inherited from medieval scholasticism

• Shakespeare exploits the word’s multiple senses for dramatic and poetic effect

• Understanding being unlocks much of Elizabethan metaphysical discourse

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Pronunciation Guide: Early Modern English (c. 1600)

This lesson employs Original Pronunciation (OP) as reconstructed by David Crystal and other scholars. Key features distinguishing Elizabethan speech from modern Received Pronunciation include:

Rhoticity: All R sounds are pronounced, including after vowels. The /r/ had a fuller, more trilled quality than modern American English.

The -tion/-sion Suffix: Crucially, words ending in -tion and -sion were pronounced /sjən/ or /sɪ.ən/ (”see-un”), NOT the modern /ʃən/ (”shun”). Thus perfection = /pər.ˈfek.sjən/, salvation = /sal.ˈveɪ.sjən/.

Vowel Qualities: The Great Vowel Shift was ongoing, producing vowels intermediate between Middle English and Modern English. Long /eː/ had not yet fully shifted to /iː/.

The Word “Being”: Pronounced /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ with elongated first syllable.

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Section A: Interlinear Construed Text

75.1a What strange being lurks within the shadow?

75.1b What /ʍat/ what strange /straːndʒ/ unusual being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ creature lurks /lʊrks/ hides within /wɪðˈɪn/ inside the /ðə/ the shadow /ˈʃa.doː/ darkness

75.2a Thy being doth depend upon the king’s good favour.

75.2b Thy /ðaɪ/ your-FAMILIAR being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence doth /dʊθ/ does depend /dɪ.ˈpɛnd/ rely upon /ə.ˈpɔn/ on the /ðə/ the king’s /kɪŋz/ king’s-POSS good /guːd/ favorable favour /ˈfeɪ.vər/ grace

75.3a No mortal being can escape death’s dominion.

75.3b No /noː/ no mortal /ˈmɔr.tal/ earthly being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ creature can /kan/ is-able-to escape /ɛs.ˈkeɪp/ flee death’s /dɛθs/ death’s-POSS dominion /doː.ˈmɪn.jən/ power

75.4a The very being of mine honour stands accused.

75.4b The /ðə/ the very /ˈvɛ.ri/ utmost being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ essence of /ɔv/ of mine /maɪn/ my honour /ˈɔ.nər/ reputation stands /standz/ is accused /a.ˈkjuːzd/ charged

75.5a I owe my being to my father’s sacrifice.

75.5b I /aɪ/ I owe /oː/ am-indebted my /maɪ/ my being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence to /tuː/ to my /maɪ/ my father’s /ˈfaː.ðərz/ father’s-POSS sacrifice /ˈsa.krɪ.faɪs/ offering

75.6a Each living being partakes of God’s creation.

75.6b Each /iːtʃ/ every living /ˈlɪ.vɪŋ/ animate being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ creature partakes /par.ˈteɪks/ shares of /ɔv/ in God’s /gɔdz/ God’s-POSS creation /kriː.ˈeɪ.sjən/ making

75.7a What celestial being descends from heaven’s vault?

75.7b What /ʍat/ what celestial /sɛ.ˈlɛs.tjal/ heavenly being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ creature descends /dɪ.ˈsɛndz/ comes-down from /frɔm/ from heaven’s /ˈhɛ.vənz/ heaven’s-POSS vault /vɔːlt/ dome

75.8a His whole being trembled at the apparition.

75.8b His /hɪz/ his whole /hoːl/ entire being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ self trembled /ˈtrɛm.bəld/ shook at /at/ at the /ðə/ the apparition /a.pa.ˈrɪ.sjən/ ghost

75.9a To question being itself is philosophy’s chief labour.

75.9b To /tuː/ to question /ˈkwɛs.tjən/ inquire-into being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence itself /ɪt.ˈsɛlf/ itself is /ɪz/ is philosophy’s /fɪ.ˈlɔ.sə.fiːz/ philosophy’s-POSS chief /tʃiːf/ principal labour /ˈleɪ.bər/ task

75.10a The fairies are beings of mischief and moonlight.

75.10b The /ðə/ the fairies /ˈfɛː.riːz/ sprites are /ar/ are beings /ˈbeː.ɪŋz/ creatures of /ɔv/ of mischief /ˈmɪs.tʃɪf/ pranks and /and/ and moonlight /ˈmuːn.laɪt/ lunar-glow

75.11a Ambition consumes the being of him that harbours it.

75.11b Ambition /am.ˈbɪ.sjən/ aspiration consumes /kən.ˈsjuːmz/ devours the /ðə/ the being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ essence of /ɔv/ of him /hɪm/ him that /ðat/ who harbours /ˈhar.bərz/ shelters it /ɪt/ it

75.12a She perceived some supernatural being at the window.

75.12b She /ʃiː/ she perceived /pər.ˈsiːvd/ observed some /sʊm/ a-certain supernatural /sjuː.pər.ˈna.tjə.ral/ otherworldly being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ creature at /at/ at the /ðə/ the window /ˈwɪn.doː/ casement

75.13a Love transforms the very being of the lover.

75.13b Love /lʊv/ affection transforms /trans.ˈfɔrmz/ changes the /ðə/ the very /ˈvɛ.ri/ innermost being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ essence of /ɔv/ of the /ðə/ the lover /ˈlʊ.vər/ one-who-loves

75.14a In being merciful, the prince shows godlike virtue.

75.14b In /ɪn/ in being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ acting-as merciful /ˈmɛr.sɪ.fʊl/ compassionate the /ðə/ the prince /prɪns/ ruler shows /ʃoːz/ displays godlike /ˈgɔd.laɪk/ divine virtue /ˈvɛr.tjuː/ excellence

75.15a My soul and being are devoted to your service.

75.15b My /maɪ/ my soul /soːl/ spirit and /and/ and being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence are /ar/ are devoted /dɪ.ˈvoː.tɪd/ dedicated to /tuː/ to your /jʊr/ your service /ˈsɛr.vɪs/ duty

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Section B: Natural Sentences

75.1 What strange being lurks within the shadow? “What unusual creature hides there in the darkness?”

75.2 Thy being doth depend upon the king’s good favour. “Your very existence relies upon the king’s gracious approval.”

75.3 No mortal being can escape death’s dominion. “No earthly creature can flee from the power of death.”

75.4 The very being of mine honour stands accused. “The essential nature of my reputation is charged.”

75.5 I owe my being to my father’s sacrifice. “I am indebted for my existence to my father’s offering.”

75.6 Each living being partakes of God’s creation. “Every animate creature shares in divine creation.”

75.7 What celestial being descends from heaven’s vault? “What heavenly creature comes down from the dome of heaven?”

75.8 His whole being trembled at the apparition. “His entire self shook at the ghostly sight.”

75.9 To question being itself is philosophy’s chief labour. “To inquire into existence itself is philosophy’s principal task.”

75.10 The fairies are beings of mischief and moonlight. “The sprites are creatures of pranks and lunar glow.”

75.11 Ambition consumes the being of him that harbours it. “Aspiration devours the essence of the one who shelters it.”

75.12 She perceived some supernatural being at the window. “She observed an otherworldly creature at the casement.”

75.13 Love transforms the very being of the lover. “Affection changes the innermost essence of the one who loves.”

75.14 In being merciful, the prince shows godlike virtue. “In acting compassionately, the ruler displays divine excellence.”

75.15 My soul and being are devoted to your service. “My spirit and existence are dedicated to your duty.”

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Section C: Elizabethan Text Only

75.1 What strange being lurks within the shadow?

75.2 Thy being doth depend upon the king’s good favour.

75.3 No mortal being can escape death’s dominion.

75.4 The very being of mine honour stands accused.

75.5 I owe my being to my father’s sacrifice.

75.6 Each living being partakes of God’s creation.

75.7 What celestial being descends from heaven’s vault?

75.8 His whole being trembled at the apparition.

75.9 To question being itself is philosophy’s chief labour.

75.10 The fairies are beings of mischief and moonlight.

75.11 Ambition consumes the being of him that harbours it.

75.12 She perceived some supernatural being at the window.

75.13 Love transforms the very being of the lover.

75.14 In being merciful, the prince shows godlike virtue.

75.15 My soul and being are devoted to your service.

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Section D: Grammar Explanation

These are the grammar rules for “being” in Elizabethan English:

The word being functions across multiple grammatical categories in Early Modern English, exhibiting flexibility that modern speakers sometimes find surprising.

As Abstract Noun (Existence): When being denotes existence or essence, it typically appears with the definite article or possessive determiners: “the being of,” “my being,” “thy being.” This usage descends from scholastic Latin esse (to be) and ens (that which is). The abstract sense often pairs with verbs suggesting dependency or transformation: “My being depends upon...” or “Love transforms thy being.”

As Concrete Noun (Creature): When being signifies a creature or entity, it takes articles and modifiers as any countable noun: “a strange being,” “celestial beings,” “no mortal being.” This usage allows for rich adjectival modification, producing phrases like “supernatural being” or “living being.”

As Present Participle: The form being also functions as a present participle, creating participial phrases: “In being merciful...” Here the word operates verbally rather than nominally, indicating ongoing action or state.

Pronunciation Note on -tion/-sion: Throughout Elizabethan English, the suffix -tion and -sion received the pronunciation /sjən/ or /sɪ.ən/. Modern speakers must consciously articulate “cre-AY-see-un” for creation, “am-BI-see-un” for ambition, “ap-pa-RI-see-un” for apparition. This feature affects dozens of common words and represents one of the most distinctive markers of Original Pronunciation.

Verb Agreement with “Being”: As a singular abstract noun, being takes singular verb forms: “The being of mine honour stands accused.” As a plural concrete noun, beings takes plural forms: “The fairies are beings of mischief.”

Common Mistakes:

• Pronouncing -tion as modern /ʃən/ rather than period /sjən/

• Failing to articulate final /r/ in words like “honour,” “favour”

• Using modern vowel qualities instead of transitional Great Vowel Shift sounds

• Treating “being” only as abstract, missing the concrete “creature” sense

The Verb “To Be” and Its Forms: Elizabethan English retained forms now archaic: art (second person singular), doth (third person singular emphatic), hath (has). The full paradigm: I am, thou art, he/she/it is, we are, you are, they are. The subjunctive retained vitality: “If it be true...”

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Section E: Cultural Context

Philosophical Weight of “Being”:

For Elizabethan thinkers, being carried immense philosophical significance inherited from Aristotelian and scholastic traditions. The medieval universities had spent centuries debating ens (being), esse (existence), and essentia (essence). When Shakespeare has Hamlet contemplate whether “to be or not to be,” he invokes this entire philosophical heritage. The question is not merely whether to live or die, but whether existence itself possesses meaning, whether being has value.

The Great Chain of Being:

Elizabethan cosmology conceived of all existence arranged in a hierarchical chain from God at the summit through angels, humans, animals, plants, and minerals to mere matter at the base. Every being occupied a fixed place in this divine order. To speak of “celestial beings” or “mortal beings” was to invoke this entire worldview. Disruption of the chain—a king murdered, natural order violated—threatened cosmic stability.

“Being” in Theatrical Practice:

On the Elizabethan stage, being frequently appears in soliloquies and moments of philosophical reflection. Characters question their own being when facing moral crises. The word signals interiority—the character’s contemplation of existence, identity, and purpose. Modern actors must recognize this cue and deliver such lines with appropriate weight.

Regional and Class Variations:

While our pronunciation follows London theatrical convention, Elizabethan England exhibited tremendous dialectal diversity. The word being might sound somewhat different in Yorkshire, Cornwall, or Scotland. However, the stage pronunciation of the Lord Chamberlain’s Men (Shakespeare’s company) would have represented educated London speech with theatrical projection.

The -tion Pronunciation in Cultural Memory:

The older pronunciation of -tion as /sjən/ survived in some dialects and formal registers well into the eighteenth century. It lingers today in certain liturgical contexts and in the speech of older speakers in conservative dialects. Hearing “salvation” as /sal.ˈveɪ.sjən/ connects modern students to centuries of English worship, scholarship, and performance.

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Section F: Literary Citation

From Christopher Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus (c. 1592), the Scholar’s reflection on Faustus after his damnation:

F-A: Interlinear Construed Text

Cut /kʊt/ severed is /ɪz/ is the /ðə/ the branch /brantʃ/ bough that /ðat/ which might /maɪt/ could have /hav/ have grown /groːn/ flourished full /fʊl/ fully straight, /streɪt/ upright

And /and/ and burnèd /ˈbʊr.nɪd/ consumed is /ɪz/ is Apollo’s /a.ˈpɔ.loːz/ Apollo’s-POSS laurel /ˈlɔ.rəl/ wreath bough, /boː/ branch

That /ðat/ which sometime /ˈsʊm.taɪm/ formerly grew /gruː/ flourished within /wɪðˈɪn/ inside this /ðɪs/ this learnèd /ˈlɛr.nɪd/ scholarly man. /man/ person

Faustus /ˈfɔː.stʊs/ Faustus is /ɪz/ is gone: /gɔn/ departed regard /rɪ.ˈgard/ observe his /hɪz/ his hellish /ˈhɛ.lɪʃ/ infernal fall, /fɔːl/ descent

Whose /huːz/ whose fiendful /ˈfiːnd.fʊl/ demonic fortune /ˈfɔr.tjuːn/ fate may /meɪ/ may exhort /ɛks.ˈhɔrt/ urge the /ðə/ the wise /waɪz/ prudent

Only /ˈoːn.li/ merely to /tuː/ to wonder /ˈwʊn.dər/ marvel at /at/ at unlawful /ʊn.ˈlɔː.fʊl/ forbidden things, /θɪŋz/ matters

Whose /huːz/ whose deepness /ˈdiːp.nɛs/ profundity doth /dʊθ/ does entice /ɛn.ˈtaɪs/ tempt such /sʊtʃ/ such forward /ˈfɔr.wərd/ presumptuous wits /wɪts/ minds

To /tuː/ to practise /ˈprak.tɪs/ engage-in more /moːr/ more than /ðan/ than heavenly /ˈhɛ.vən.li/ divine power /ˈpaʊ.ər/ authority permits. /pər.ˈmɪts/ allows

F-B: Text with Translation

Cut is the branch that might have grown full straight, And burnèd is Apollo’s laurel bough, That sometime grew within this learnèd man. Faustus is gone: regard his hellish fall, Whose fiendful fortune may exhort the wise Only to wonder at unlawful things, Whose deepness doth entice such forward wits To practise more than heavenly power permits.

“The branch that might have grown perfectly upright has been severed, and the laurel bough of Apollo—emblem of learning—that once flourished within this scholarly man is consumed by fire. Faustus has departed: observe his infernal descent, whose demonic fate may urge the prudent only to marvel at forbidden matters, the profundity of which tempts such presumptuous minds to engage in more than divine authority allows.”

F-C: Original Text Only

Cut is the branch that might have grown full straight, And burnèd is Apollo’s laurel bough, That sometime grew within this learnèd man. Faustus is gone: regard his hellish fall, Whose fiendful fortune may exhort the wise Only to wonder at unlawful things, Whose deepness doth entice such forward wits To practise more than heavenly power permits.

F-D: Grammar and Vocabulary Notes

This passage, spoken as epilogue to Marlowe’s tragedy, meditates on the destruction of a being who sought knowledge beyond divine permission. The metaphor of the severed branch evokes the Great Chain of Being disrupted—Faustus has removed himself from the natural order through his pact with Lucifer.

Note the passive constructions “Cut is,” “burnèd is”—inverted word order for emphasis. The adjective “learnèd” receives two syllables /ˈlɛr.nɪd/, as indicated by the grave accent, common in Elizabethan verse to maintain meter.

“Apollo’s laurel bough” references the classical god of learning and poetry; scholars wore laurel wreaths. That this symbol “burnèd” within Faustus signals the destruction of legitimate knowledge through diabolic ambition.

“Heavenly power permits” demonstrates the /sjən/ pronunciation would not apply—permits lacks the -tion suffix—but the passage’s “fortune” /ˈfɔr.tjuːn/ shows the transitional quality of such endings in this period.

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Genre Section: Soliloquy — A Meditation on Existence

A courtier alone upon the stage, contemplating his position after learning of a conspiracy against his lord.

Part A: Interlinear Construed Text

75.16a What am I but a shadow of true being?

75.16b What /ʍat/ what am /am/ am I /aɪ/ I but /bʊt/ except a /a/ a shadow /ˈʃa.doː/ shade of /ɔv/ of true /truː/ authentic being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence

75.17a My being hangs upon my master’s fortune.

75.17b My /maɪ/ my being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence hangs /haŋz/ depends upon /ə.ˈpɔn/ on my /maɪ/ my master’s /ˈmas.tərz/ lord’s-POSS fortune /ˈfɔr.tjuːn/ fate

75.18a If he fall, then falls my being too.

75.18b If /ɪf/ if he /hiː/ he fall /fɔːl/ falls-SUBJ then /ðɛn/ then falls /fɔːlz/ descends my /maɪ/ my being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence too /tuː/ also

75.19a Yet what manner of being is this fearful life?

75.19b Yet /jɛt/ yet what /ʍat/ what manner /ˈma.nər/ kind of /ɔv/ of being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence is /ɪz/ is this /ðɪs/ this fearful /ˈfiːr.fʊl/ terrified life /laɪf/ living

75.20a To wake each morn in expectation of destruction—

75.20b To /tuː/ to wake /weɪk/ arise each /iːtʃ/ every morn /mɔrn/ morning in /ɪn/ in expectation /ɛks.pɛk.ˈteɪ.sjən/ anticipation of /ɔv/ of destruction /dɪs.ˈtrʊk.sjən/ ruin

75.21a This is no being, but a living death.

75.21b This /ðɪs/ this is /ɪz/ is no /noː/ not being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence but /bʊt/ but a /a/ a living /ˈlɪ.vɪŋ/ animate death /dɛθ/ dying

75.22a The meanest peasant hath more being than I.

75.22b The /ðə/ the meanest /ˈmiː.nɪst/ lowest peasant /ˈpɛ.zənt/ rustic hath /haθ/ has more /moːr/ greater being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence than /ðan/ than I /aɪ/ I

75.23a For he possesseth his own soul and being.

75.23b For /fɔr/ for he /hiː/ he possesseth /pə.ˈzɛ.sɪθ/ owns his /hɪz/ his own /oːn/ own soul /soːl/ spirit and /and/ and being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence

75.24a Whilst I am but a borrowed being, lent by favour.

75.24b Whilst /ʍaɪlst/ while I /aɪ/ I am /am/ am but /bʊt/ merely a /a/ a borrowed /ˈbɔ.roːd/ loaned being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence lent /lɛnt/ granted by /baɪ/ by favour /ˈfeɪ.vər/ grace

75.25a What strange beings we courtiers are!

75.25b What /ʍat/ what strange /straːndʒ/ peculiar beings /ˈbeː.ɪŋz/ creatures we /wiː/ we courtiers /ˈkɔr.tjərz/ attendants are /ar/ are

75.26a Creatures that have no being of our own.

75.26b Creatures /ˈkriː.tjərz/ beings that /ðat/ who have /hav/ possess no /noː/ no being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence of /ɔv/ of our /ʊr/ our own /oːn/ own

75.27a We borrow our being from reflection of the great.

75.27b We /wiː/ we borrow /ˈbɔ.roː/ obtain our /ʊr/ our being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence from /frɔm/ from reflection /rɪ.ˈflɛk.sjən/ mirroring of /ɔv/ of the /ðə/ the great /greɪt/ powerful

75.28a The sun withdraws, and our being vanisheth.

75.28b The /ðə/ the sun /sʊn/ sovereign withdraws /wɪð.ˈdrɔːz/ departs and /and/ and our /ʊr/ our being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence vanisheth /ˈva.nɪ.ʃɪθ/ disappears

75.29a Yet better this than no being at all.

75.29b Yet /jɛt/ yet better /ˈbɛ.tər/ preferable this /ðɪs/ this than /ðan/ than no /noː/ no being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence at /at/ at all /ɔːl/ all

75.30a For even dependent being is being still.

75.30b For /fɔr/ for even /ˈiː.vən/ even dependent /dɪ.ˈpɛn.dənt/ reliant being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence is /ɪz/ is being /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ existence still /stɪl/ yet

Part B: Natural Sentences

75.16 What am I but a shadow of true being? “What am I except a mere shade of authentic existence?”

75.17 My being hangs upon my master’s fortune. “My existence depends entirely on my lord’s fate.”

75.18 If he fall, then falls my being too. “Should he fall, my existence descends with him.”

75.19 Yet what manner of being is this fearful life? “Yet what kind of existence is this terrified living?”

75.20 To wake each morn in expectation of destruction— “To arise every morning anticipating ruin—”

75.21 This is no being, but a living death. “This is not existence, but an animate dying.”

75.22 The meanest peasant hath more being than I. “The lowest rustic possesses greater existence than I.”

75.23 For he possesseth his own soul and being. “For he owns his own spirit and existence.”

75.24 Whilst I am but a borrowed being, lent by favour. “While I am merely a loaned existence, granted by grace.”

75.25 What strange beings we courtiers are! “What peculiar creatures we attendants at court are!”

75.26 Creatures that have no being of our own. “Beings who possess no existence of our own.”

75.27 We borrow our being from reflection of the great. “We obtain our existence from mirroring the powerful.”

75.28 The sun withdraws, and our being vanisheth. “The sovereign departs, and our existence disappears.”

75.29 Yet better this than no being at all. “Yet preferable is this to no existence whatsoever.”

75.30 For even dependent being is being still. “For even reliant existence remains existence yet.”

Part C: Elizabethan Text Only

What am I but a shadow of true being? My being hangs upon my master’s fortune. If he fall, then falls my being too. Yet what manner of being is this fearful life? To wake each morn in expectation of destruction— This is no being, but a living death. The meanest peasant hath more being than I. For he possesseth his own soul and being. Whilst I am but a borrowed being, lent by favour. What strange beings we courtiers are! Creatures that have no being of our own. We borrow our being from reflection of the great. The sun withdraws, and our being vanisheth. Yet better this than no being at all. For even dependent being is being still.

Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section

This soliloquy demonstrates the full semantic range of being within a single dramatic meditation. The courtier employs the word in both abstract (existence) and concrete (creature) senses, sometimes within the same line.

Subjunctive Mood: “If he fall” uses the subjunctive rather than indicative “falls”—a construction still alive in Elizabethan English for hypothetical conditions. Modern English would typically use “If he falls” or “Should he fall.”

-eth Endings: The third-person singular endings “possesseth,” “vanisheth” represent the older inflection competing with the emerging “-s” forms. Shakespeare uses both, sometimes varying for metrical or stylistic effect.

Pronunciation of -tion/-sion words: This passage contains several crucial examples: “expectation” /ɛks.pɛk.ˈteɪ.sjən/, “destruction” /dɪs.ˈtrʊk.sjən/, “reflection” /rɪ.ˈflɛk.sjən/. Each receives the period-appropriate /sjən/ rather than modern /ʃən/.

The Sun/Sovereign Metaphor: “The sun withdraws” operates on two levels—the literal sun setting and the figurative withdrawal of royal favour. This cosmic-political metaphor pervades Elizabethan literature, linking the natural order to the social hierarchy.

Antithesis: The soliloquy employs Shakespearean antithesis throughout: “shadow/true being,” “living death,” “borrowed/own,” building meaning through opposition.

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Pronunciation Guide: Key Words in This Lesson

Word Modern RP Elizabethan OP being /ˈbiː.ɪŋ/ /ˈbeː.ɪŋ/ creation /kriˈeɪ.ʃən/ /kriː.ˈeɪ.sjən/ ambition /æmˈbɪ.ʃən/ /am.ˈbɪ.sjən/ apparition /æp.əˈrɪ.ʃən/ /a.pa.ˈrɪ.sjən/ expectation /ek.spek.ˈteɪ.ʃən/ /ɛks.pɛk.ˈteɪ.sjən/ destruction /dɪˈstrʌk.ʃən/ /dɪs.ˈtrʊk.sjən/ reflection /rɪˈflek.ʃən/ /rɪ.ˈflɛk.sjən/ honour /ˈɒn.ə/ /ˈɔ.nər/ favour /ˈfeɪ.və/ /ˈfeɪ.vər/ fortune /ˈfɔː.tʃuːn/ /ˈfɔr.tjuːn/

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About This Course

The Latinum Institute Elizabethan English Course introduces modern learners to the language of Shakespeare, Marlowe, and their contemporaries through the proven construed-text methodology developed over nearly two decades of language instruction.

Each lesson focuses on a single high-frequency word, presenting it across thirty carefully graduated examples that demonstrate the word’s grammatical behaviour, semantic range, and cultural context. The interlinear glossing format makes even complex Early Modern syntax immediately accessible to autodidact learners, while the inclusion of Original Pronunciation (OP) connects students to the living sound of Elizabethan theatre.

Why Learn Elizabethan English?

• Unlock the full meaning of Shakespeare’s wordplay and rhymes

• Understand the philosophical and cultural assumptions of the period

• Develop appreciation for the evolution of the English language

• Prepare for performance or academic study of Early Modern drama

• Connect with four centuries of English literary tradition

The Latinum Method: Since 2006, Latinum Institute has pioneered the use of interlinear construed texts for language acquisition, drawing on techniques proven effective since Renaissance humanist pedagogy. By glossing each word individually, we enable learners to absorb grammatical patterns naturally while building vocabulary systematically.

Course Resources:

• Course Index: https://latinum.substack.com/p/index

• Reviews: https://uk.trustpilot.com/review/latinum.org.uk

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✓ Lesson 75 Elizabethan English complete

Still — Adverb of Continuation and Persistence

INTRODUCTION

Welcome to Lesson Seventy-Four of the Latinum Institute’s Elizabethan English course. This lesson examines still, one of the most versatile adverbs in Early Modern English, functioning as a marker of temporal continuation, persistent state, and emphatic constancy.

Course Index:

https://latinum.substack.com/p/index

FAQ: What does “still” mean in Elizabethan English?

In Elizabethan usage, still carries richer semantic weight than its modern descendant. Beyond simple continuation (”yet,” “even now”), it frequently conveys absolute constancy (”always,” “perpetually,” “ever”) and emphatic persistence despite circumstances. Shakespeare employs still over 800 times across his works, often in contexts where modern English would require “always,” “constantly,” or “nevertheless.” The word derives from Old English stille (motionless, calm), but by the sixteenth century had expanded far beyond its original sense of physical stillness to encompass temporal and modal dimensions.

This lesson presents fifteen examples demonstrating still in its various Elizabethan functions: temporal continuation, habitual constancy, emphatic persistence, and concessive force. The Genre Section offers a dramatic dialogue showcasing how still operates within authentic Early Modern discourse.

Educational Note: This material forms part of a systematic 1000-word frequency curriculum designed for autodidactic learners using the Latinum Institute’s construed text methodology.

Key Takeaways:

• Still in Elizabethan English often means “always” or “constantly,” not merely “yet”

• The word frequently carries emphatic or concessive force

• Positioning within the sentence affects nuance and emphasis

• Still commonly collocates with verbs of mental state and continuous action

• Understanding this adverb unlocks hundreds of Shakespearean passages

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PRONUNCIATION GUIDANCE FOR ELIZABETHAN ENGLISH

The International Phonetic Alphabet transcriptions in this lesson reflect Early Modern English pronunciation (c. 1580-1620), differing from modern Received Pronunciation in several key respects:

Period Pronunciation Features:

• The suffix -tion was pronounced /tsiən/ or /sjən/, not modern /ʃən/

• The vowel in still was /ɪ/ as today, but with less reduction in unstressed syllables

• Final -ed was often syllabic /ɛd/ where modern English has /d/ or /t/

• The r was consistently pronounced in all positions (rhotic)

• Long vowels retained older qualities: love had /ʊ/ not /ʌ/

• Gh in words like night retained a velar fricative /x/ for some speakers

• Wh- words began with /hw/ (preserved in some modern dialects)

The IPA transcriptions provided aim to guide modern readers toward period-appropriate delivery while remaining accessible. Stressed syllables are marked with /’/ preceding the syllable.

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SECTION A: INTERLINEAR CONSTRUED TEXT

74.1a The king doth still command our loyal service 74.1b The /ðə/ the king /kɪŋ/ king doth /dʌθ/ does-EMPH still /stɪl/ always command /kəm’mɑːnd/ command our /aʊr/ our loyal /’lɔɪ.əl/ loyal service /’sɛr.vɪs/ service

74.2a She weeps still for her departed lord 74.2b She /ʃeː/ she weeps /weːps/ weeps still /stɪl/ yet for /fɔr/ for her /hɛr/ her departed /dɪ’pɑr.tɛd/ departed lord /lɔrd/ lord

74.3a Though fortune frown I still maintain mine honour 74.3b Though /ðoː/ although fortune /’fɔr.tjuːn/ fortune frown /fraʊn/ frown-SUBJ I /aɪ/ I still /stɪl/ nevertheless maintain /meɪn’teɪn/ maintain mine /maɪn/ my honour /’ɔ.nər/ honour

74.4a Art thou still resolv’d to quit this place 74.4b Art /ɑrt/ are-2SG thou /ðaʊ/ thou still /stɪl/ yet resolv’d /rɪ’zɔlvd/ resolved to /tuː/ to quit /kwɪt/ leave this /ðɪs/ this place /pleɪs/ place

74.5a The moon still governs the inconstant tides 74.5b The /ðə/ the moon /muːn/ moon still /stɪl/ perpetually governs /’gʌ.vərnz/ governs the /ðə/ the inconstant /ɪn’kɔn.stənt/ inconstant tides /taɪdz/ tides

74.6a He still protests his innocence most vehemently 74.6b He /heː/ he still /stɪl/ continually protests /proː’tɛsts/ protests his /hɪz/ his innocence /’ɪ.nə.sɛns/ innocence most /moːst/ most vehemently /’veː.ə.mənt.liː/ vehemently

74.7a Why dost thou still torment me with thy presence 74.7b Why /hwaɪ/ why dost /dʌst/ do-2SG thou /ðaʊ/ thou still /stɪl/ constantly torment /tɔr’mɛnt/ torment me /meː/ me with /wɪθ/ with thy /ðaɪ/ thy presence /’prɛ.zəns/ presence

74.8a My heart beats still with hope of her return 74.8b My /maɪ/ my heart /hɑrt/ heart beats /beːts/ beats still /stɪl/ yet with /wɪθ/ with hope /hoːp/ hope of /ɔv/ of her /hɛr/ her return /rɪ’tɜrn/ return

74.9a The people still do murmur ‘gainst the tax 74.9b The /ðə/ the people /’peː.pəl/ people still /stɪl/ constantly do /duː/ do-EMPH murmur /’mʌr.mər/ murmur ‘gainst /gɛnst/ against the /ðə/ the tax /tæks/ tax

74.10a She still remembers what her mother taught 74.10b She /ʃeː/ she still /stɪl/ ever remembers /rɪ’mɛm.bərz/ remembers what /hwɑt/ what her /hɛr/ her mother /’mʌ.ðər/ mother taught /tɔːt/ taught

74.11a Though winter rage the fire still burns within 74.11b Though /ðoː/ although winter /’wɪn.tər/ winter rage /reɪdʒ/ rage-SUBJ the /ðə/ the fire /’faɪ.ər/ fire still /stɪl/ nonetheless burns /bɜrnz/ burns within /wɪ’ðɪn/ within

74.12a I am still thy servant howsoever thou usest me 74.12b I /aɪ/ I am /æm/ am still /stɪl/ always thy /ðaɪ/ thy servant /’sɛr.vənt/ servant howsoever /haʊ.soː’ɛ.vər/ howsoever thou /ðaʊ/ thou usest /’juː.zɪst/ use-2SG me /meː/ me

74.13a The villain still denies his wicked deed 74.13b The /ðə/ the villain /’vɪ.lən/ villain still /stɪl/ persistently denies /dɪ’naɪz/ denies his /hɪz/ his wicked /’wɪ.kɛd/ wicked deed /deːd/ deed

74.14a Though banish’d hence my love remains still true 74.14b Though /ðoː/ although banish’d /’bæ.nɪʃt/ banished hence /hɛns/ from-here my /maɪ/ my love /lʊv/ love remains /rɪ’meɪnz/ remains still /stɪl/ ever true /truː/ true

74.15a Time passeth yet my sorrow still abides 74.15b Time /taɪm/ time passeth /’pɑː.sɪθ/ passes yet /jɛt/ but my /maɪ/ my sorrow /’sɔ.roː/ sorrow still /stɪl/ constantly abides /ə’baɪdz/ abides

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SECTION B: NATURAL SENTENCES

74.1 The king doth still command our loyal service. “The king always commands our loyal service.”

74.2 She weeps still for her departed lord. “She yet weeps for her departed lord.”

74.3 Though fortune frown, I still maintain mine honour. “Although fortune may frown, I nevertheless maintain my honour.”

74.4 Art thou still resolv’d to quit this place? “Are you yet determined to leave this place?”

74.5 The moon still governs the inconstant tides. “The moon perpetually governs the changeable tides.”

74.6 He still protests his innocence most vehemently. “He continually protests his innocence most forcefully.”

74.7 Why dost thou still torment me with thy presence? “Why do you constantly torment me with your presence?”

74.8 My heart beats still with hope of her return. “My heart yet beats with hope of her return.”

74.9 The people still do murmur ‘gainst the tax. “The people constantly complain against the tax.”

74.10 She still remembers what her mother taught. “She ever remembers what her mother taught.”

74.11 Though winter rage, the fire still burns within. “Although winter may rage, the fire nonetheless burns within.”

74.12 I am still thy servant, howsoever thou usest me. “I am always your servant, however you may treat me.”

74.13 The villain still denies his wicked deed. “The villain persistently denies his evil act.”

74.14 Though banish’d hence, my love remains still true. “Although banished from here, my love remains ever faithful.”

74.15 Time passeth, yet my sorrow still abides. “Time passes, but my sorrow constantly endures.”

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SECTION C: ELIZABETHAN TEXT ONLY

74.1 The king doth still command our loyal service.

74.2 She weeps still for her departed lord.

74.3 Though fortune frown, I still maintain mine honour.

74.4 Art thou still resolv’d to quit this place?

74.5 The moon still governs the inconstant tides.

74.6 He still protests his innocence most vehemently.

74.7 Why dost thou still torment me with thy presence?

74.8 My heart beats still with hope of her return.

74.9 The people still do murmur ‘gainst the tax.

74.10 She still remembers what her mother taught.

74.11 Though winter rage, the fire still burns within.

74.12 I am still thy servant, howsoever thou usest me.

74.13 The villain still denies his wicked deed.

74.14 Though banish’d hence, my love remains still true.

74.15 Time passeth, yet my sorrow still abides.

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SECTION D: GRAMMAR EXPLANATION

These are the grammar rules for “still” in Elizabethan English:

Semantic Range of “Still”

The Elizabethan adverb still encompasses a broader semantic territory than its modern counterpart. Where contemporary English typically restricts still to temporal continuation (meaning “yet” or “up to this point”), Early Modern usage extends to at least four distinct functions:

First, still indicates temporal continuation: the sense of “up to now” or “yet,” as in “She weeps still for her departed lord.” This remains the primary modern meaning.

Second, still signifies habitual constancy: the sense of “always,” “perpetually,” or “at all times,” as in “The king doth still command our loyal service.” This usage appears frequently in Shakespeare and his contemporaries but has largely fallen from modern English except in set phrases.

Third, still conveys emphatic persistence: the sense of “nonetheless” or “nevertheless,” especially after concessive clauses beginning with though or albeit, as in “Though fortune frown, I still maintain mine honour.”

Fourth, still can function as an intensifier of continuous action, emphasising that something happens repeatedly or without cessation, as in “The people still do murmur ‘gainst the tax.”

Positioning of “Still”

In Elizabethan English, still exhibits considerable flexibility in sentence position, each placement carrying distinct nuances:

Pre-verbal position (most common): still precedes the main verb—”He still protests his innocence.” This placement emphasises the continuation or constancy of the action itself.

Post-verbal position: still follows the main verb—”She weeps still for her departed lord.” This placement often carries a more literary or emphatic quality, drawing attention to the state that persists.

Sentence-final position: still closes the clause—”My love remains still true.” This placement typically emphasises the resultant state rather than the action.

Pre-adjectival position: still modifies the following adjective—”remains still true.” This construction emphasises the constancy of the quality described.

Collocations with Auxiliary Verbs

When combined with the emphatic auxiliary do/doth, still creates a construction expressing persistent action with added emphasis: “The king doth still command” carries more weight than “The king still commands.” This construction was common in formal or emotionally charged contexts.

With modal auxiliaries, still typically precedes the main verb: “I am still thy servant” positions still between the copula and the predicate nominative.

“Still” in Concessive Constructions

A particularly common Elizabethan pattern places still in the main clause following a though clause:

Though + [subjunctive/indicative clause] + [subject] + still + [main verb]

Example: “Though fortune frown, I still maintain mine honour.”

This construction emphasises that the action or state persists despite contrary circumstances. Modern English might replace still with “nevertheless” or “nonetheless” in such contexts.

Common Mistakes for Modern Readers

Modern readers often under-translate still, rendering it merely as “yet” when context demands “always” or “constantly.” Consider Shakespeare’s “Still harping on my daughter” (Hamlet 2.2): Polonius means Hamlet constantly dwells upon Ophelia, not merely that he yet speaks of her.

Another frequent error involves missing the concessive force of still after though clauses. “Though banish’d hence, my love remains still true” uses still to mean “nevertheless true” or “true despite everything,” not merely “true up to now.”

Comparison with Modern English

Modern English retains still primarily for temporal continuation: “She is still working” means “She continues to work up to this moment.” The meanings “always,” “constantly,” and “nevertheless” have largely transferred to other adverbs. Elizabethan still thus requires contextual interpretation—the modern reader must determine from context whether still means “yet,” “always,” “constantly,” or “nevertheless.”

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SECTION E: CULTURAL CONTEXT

The Philosophy of Constancy

The Elizabethan fascination with still reflects a cultural preoccupation with constancy—the virtue of remaining unchanged amid Fortune’s turning wheel. Renaissance moral philosophy, drawing upon Stoic and Christian traditions, celebrated the individual who maintained virtue, loyalty, and love despite adversity. The frequent appearance of still in contexts of faithfulness, persistence, and endurance mirrors this cultural value.

Elizabethan love poetry particularly valorises “still” devotion: the lover who remains still true despite rejection, absence, or the beloved’s cruelty demonstrates the highest form of affection. This contrasts with charges of “inconstancy”—the gravest accusation one could level against a lover or friend.

“Still” in Theatrical Rhetoric

On the Elizabethan stage, still serves as a powerful rhetorical marker. Characters proclaiming that they “still” love, honour, or serve signal unwavering commitment. Villains who “still” deny, deceive, or protest their innocence reveal stubborn wickedness. The word carries moral weight beyond mere temporal description.

Shakespeare employs still strategically in his famous speeches. In Sonnet 116, “Love is not love / Which alters when it alteration finds” argues for love that remains still constant. In Hamlet, “Still harping on my daughter” reveals Polonius’s irritation at persistent dwelling upon a subject. In Othello, Desdemona’s protestations that she “still” loves her lord despite his accusations underscore her tragic constancy.

Regional and Social Variations

Evidence suggests that the “always/constantly” meaning of still was particularly common in formal, literary, and elevated registers. Courtly speech and official documents employed still to convey perpetual states: “We do still acknowledge Your Majesty’s supreme authority.” Colloquial usage may have already begun the narrowing toward purely temporal senses that would dominate later English.

Scots English, notably, preserved the “always” meaning longer than southern varieties, and traces remain in dialectal usage to this day. This conservatism suggests that the broader Elizabethan semantic range represents inherited usage rather than innovation.

“Still” in Religious Discourse

Religious texts of the period employ still abundantly. The Book of Common Prayer and period sermons use constructions like “we do still offend against Thy holy laws” and “Thou art still merciful unto us sinners.” Here still combines temporal continuation with habitual constancy—we perpetually sin, and God perpetually shows mercy. This theological dimension adds solemnity to secular uses of the word.

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SECTION F: LITERARY CITATION

From William Shakespeare’s Sonnets (Sonnet 116, c. 1609)

F-A: Interlinear Construed Text

Let /lɛt/ let me /meː/ me not /nɔt/ not to /tuː/ to the /ðə/ the marriage /’mæ.rɪdʒ/ marriage of /ɔv/ of true /truː/ true minds /maɪndz/ minds

Admit /əd’mɪt/ admit impediments /ɪm’pɛ.dɪ.mənts/ impediments Love /lʊv/ love is /ɪz/ is not /nɔt/ not love /lʊv/ love

Which /hwɪtʃ/ which alters /’ɔːl.tərz/ alters when /hwɛn/ when it /ɪt/ it alteration /ɔːl.tə’reɪ.sjən/ alteration finds /faɪndz/ finds

Or /ɔr/ or bends /bɛndz/ bends with /wɪθ/ with the /ðə/ the remover /rɪ’muː.vər/ remover to /tuː/ to remove /rɪ’muːv/ remove

O /oː/ oh no /noː/ no it /ɪt/ it is /ɪz/ is an /æn/ an ever-fixed /’ɛ.vər.fɪkst/ ever-fixed mark /mɑrk/ mark

That /ðæt/ that looks /lʊks/ looks on /ɔn/ upon tempests /’tɛm.pɪsts/ tempests and /ænd/ and is /ɪz/ is never /’nɛ.vər/ never shaken /’ʃeɪ.kən/ shaken

F-B: Natural Translation

Let me not to the marriage of true minds Admit impediments. Love is not love Which alters when it alteration finds, Or bends with the remover to remove. O no, it is an ever-fixed mark That looks on tempests and is never shaken.

“Let me not acknowledge any obstacles to the union of faithful minds. Love that changes when circumstances change, or yields when the beloved withdraws, is not true love. No—true love is a permanently fixed beacon that witnesses storms yet is never disturbed.”

F-C: Original Text

Let me not to the marriage of true minds Admit impediments. Love is not love Which alters when it alteration finds, Or bends with the remover to remove. O no, it is an ever-fixed mark That looks on tempests and is never shaken.

F-D: Grammar and Vocabulary Notes

This passage from Sonnet 116 exemplifies the Elizabethan ideal of constancy that underlies the adverb still. Though still does not appear in these lines, the entire argument celebrates the quality still denotes: love that remains constant (”ever-fixed”), that does not alter, that endures (”is never shaken”).

The phrase “ever-fixed mark” employs ever in the same semantic space as still in its “always/perpetually” sense. The compound “ever-fixed” creates a permanent state, a “still” condition immune to change.

Note the period pronunciation of “alteration” as /ɔːl.tə’reɪ.sjən/ with the suffix preserving its Latin-derived /sjən/ rather than modern /ʃən/. Similarly, “impediments” maintains full syllabic weight.

The verb “bends” (yields, gives way) contrasts with the constancy of true love. Shakespeare argues that authentic love still remains, still endures, still looks upon tempests unmoved—even when the word still goes unspoken, its concept governs the sonnet’s argument.

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GENRE SECTION: DRAMATIC DIALOGUE

A Scene at Court: The Accused Minister

In this dramatic dialogue, a minister stands accused of treachery. The word “still” appears in various functions throughout the exchange, demonstrating its semantic range in authentic dramatic context.

Part A: Interlinear Construed Text

74.16a The accusation stands Thou art still charg’d with treason 74.16b The /ðə/ the accusation /æ.kjuː’zeɪ.sjən/ accusation stands /stændz/ stands Thou /ðaʊ/ thou art /ɑrt/ are still /stɪl/ yet charg’d /tʃɑrdʒd/ charged with /wɪθ/ with treason /’treː.zən/ treason

74.17a I do still maintain my innocence before this court 74.17b I /aɪ/ I do /duː/ do-EMPH still /stɪl/ constantly maintain /meɪn’teɪn/ maintain my /maɪ/ my innocence /’ɪ.nə.sɛns/ innocence before /bɪ’fɔːr/ before this /ðɪs/ this court /kɔrt/ court

74.18a The witness still affirms he saw thee with the enemy 74.18b The /ðə/ the witness /’wɪt.nəs/ witness still /stɪl/ persistently affirms /ə’fɜrmz/ affirms he /heː/ he saw /sɔː/ saw thee /ðeː/ thee with /wɪθ/ with the /ðə/ the enemy /’ɛ.nə.miː/ enemy

74.19a That man doth still bear malice against my house 74.19b That /ðæt/ that man /mæn/ man doth /dʌθ/ does-EMPH still /stɪl/ always bear /bɛːr/ bear malice /’mæ.lɪs/ malice against /ə’gɛnst/ against my /maɪ/ my house /haʊs/ house

74.20a Though he bear malice the evidence still condemns thee 74.20b Though /ðoː/ although he /heː/ he bear /bɛːr/ bear-SUBJ malice /’mæ.lɪs/ malice the /ðə/ the evidence /’ɛ.vɪ.dəns/ evidence still /stɪl/ nonetheless condemns /kən’dɛmz/ condemns thee /ðeː/ thee

74.21a My liege I have still serv’d thee with faithful heart 74.21b My /maɪ/ my liege /liːdʒ/ lord I /aɪ/ I have /hæv/ have still /stɪl/ always serv’d /sɛrvd/ served thee /ðeː/ thee with /wɪθ/ with faithful /’feɪθ.fəl/ faithful heart /hɑrt/ heart

74.22a Dost thou still claim loyalty when letters prove otherwise 74.22b Dost /dʌst/ do-2SG thou /ðaʊ/ thou still /stɪl/ yet claim /kleɪm/ claim loyalty /’lɔɪ.əl.tiː/ loyalty when /hwɛn/ when letters /’lɛ.tərz/ letters prove /pruːv/ prove otherwise /’ʌ.ðər.waɪz/ otherwise

74.23a Those letters are forgeries I still avow my truth 74.23b Those /ðoːz/ those letters /’lɛ.tərz/ letters are /ɑr/ are forgeries /’fɔr.dʒə.riːz/ forgeries I /aɪ/ I still /stɪl/ nonetheless avow /ə’vaʊ/ avow my /maɪ/ my truth /truːθ/ truth

74.24a The court hath still more questions for the accused 74.24b The /ðə/ the court /kɔrt/ court hath /hæθ/ has still /stɪl/ yet more /mɔːr/ more questions /’kwɛs.tsjənz/ questions for /fɔr/ for the /ðə/ the accused /ə’kjuːzd/ accused

74.25a I will still answer whatsoever you demand 74.25b I /aɪ/ I will /wɪl/ will still /stɪl/ ever answer /’ɑːn.sər/ answer whatsoever /hwɔt.soː’ɛ.vər/ whatsoever you /juː/ you demand /dɪ’mɑːnd/ demand

74.26a Why didst thou still frequent the ambassador’s lodgings 74.26b Why /hwaɪ/ why didst /dɪdst/ did-2SG thou /ðaʊ/ thou still /stɪl/ constantly frequent /friː’kwɛnt/ frequent the /ðə/ the ambassador’s /æm’bæ.sə.dərz/ ambassador’s lodgings /’lɔ.dʒɪŋz/ lodgings

74.27a I went still upon lawful business of the state 74.27b I /aɪ/ I went /wɛnt/ went still /stɪl/ always upon /ə’pɔn/ upon lawful /’lɔː.fəl/ lawful business /’bɪz.nɪs/ business of /ɔv/ of the /ðə/ the state /steɪt/ state

74.28a Though thy words sound fair suspicion still remains 74.28b Though /ðoː/ although thy /ðaɪ/ thy words /wɜrdz/ words sound /saʊnd/ sound fair /fɛːr/ fair suspicion /sʌs’pɪ.sjən/ suspicion still /stɪl/ nevertheless remains /rɪ’meɪnz/ remains

74.29a Then let my deeds speak for they still witness my fidelity 74.29b Then /ðɛn/ then let /lɛt/ let my /maɪ/ my deeds /deːdz/ deeds speak /speːk/ speak for /fɔr/ for they /ðeɪ/ they still /stɪl/ perpetually witness /’wɪt.nəs/ witness my /maɪ/ my fidelity /fɪ’dɛ.lɪ.tiː/ fidelity

74.30a We shall consider but thou art still detain’d until our judgment 74.30b We /weː/ we shall /ʃæl/ shall consider /kən’sɪ.dər/ consider but /bʌt/ but thou /ðaʊ/ thou art /ɑrt/ are still /stɪl/ yet detain’d /dɪ’teɪnd/ detained until /ʌn’tɪl/ until our /aʊr/ our judgment /’dʒʌdʒ.mənt/ judgment

Part B: Natural Sentences

74.16 The accusation stands. Thou art still charg’d with treason. “The accusation remains in force. You are yet charged with treason.”

74.17 I do still maintain my innocence before this court. “I constantly maintain my innocence before this court.”

74.18 The witness still affirms he saw thee with the enemy. “The witness persistently affirms he saw you with the enemy.”

74.19 That man doth still bear malice against my house. “That man always bears ill will against my family.”

74.20 Though he bear malice, the evidence still condemns thee. “Although he may harbour ill will, the evidence nonetheless condemns you.”

74.21 My liege, I have still serv’d thee with faithful heart. “My lord, I have always served you with a loyal heart.”

74.22 Dost thou still claim loyalty when letters prove otherwise? “Do you yet claim loyalty when letters prove the contrary?”

74.23 Those letters are forgeries. I still avow my truth. “Those letters are false. I nonetheless declare my honesty.”

74.24 The court hath still more questions for the accused. “The court has yet more questions for the accused.”

74.25 I will still answer whatsoever you demand. “I will ever answer whatever you require.”

74.26 Why didst thou still frequent the ambassador’s lodgings? “Why did you constantly visit the ambassador’s residence?”

74.27 I went still upon lawful business of the state. “I always went on legitimate state affairs.”

74.28 Though thy words sound fair, suspicion still remains. “Although your words sound honest, suspicion nevertheless persists.”

74.29 Then let my deeds speak, for they still witness my fidelity. “Then let my actions speak, for they perpetually testify to my loyalty.”

74.30 We shall consider, but thou art still detain’d until our judgment. “We shall deliberate, but you are yet held until our verdict.”

Part C: Elizabethan Text Only

74.16 The accusation stands. Thou art still charg’d with treason.

74.17 I do still maintain my innocence before this court.

74.18 The witness still affirms he saw thee with the enemy.

74.19 That man doth still bear malice against my house.

74.20 Though he bear malice, the evidence still condemns thee.

74.21 My liege, I have still serv’d thee with faithful heart.

74.22 Dost thou still claim loyalty when letters prove otherwise?

74.23 Those letters are forgeries. I still avow my truth.

74.24 The court hath still more questions for the accused.

74.25 I will still answer whatsoever you demand.

74.26 Why didst thou still frequent the ambassador’s lodgings?

74.27 I went still upon lawful business of the state.

74.28 Though thy words sound fair, suspicion still remains.

74.29 Then let my deeds speak, for they still witness my fidelity.

74.30 We shall consider, but thou art still detain’d until our judgment.

Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section

This dramatic dialogue demonstrates still in multiple functions within a coherent scene:

Temporal Continuation (”yet”): Examples 74.16, 74.22, 74.24, and 74.30 use still to indicate that a condition persists up to the present moment—the charge remains, the claim continues, questions exist, detention persists.

Habitual Constancy (”always”): Examples 74.17, 74.19, 74.21, 74.26, 74.27, and 74.29 employ still to denote perpetual or characteristic action—the minister consistently maintains innocence, always served faithfully, constantly visited the ambassador.

Concessive Persistence (”nevertheless”): Examples 74.20, 74.23, and 74.28 position still in opposition to preceding concessive clauses, indicating that something holds true despite contrary circumstances.

Note the emphatic auxiliary construction: “I do still maintain” (74.17) and “doth still bear” (74.19) combine the emphatic do/doth with still for heightened rhetorical effect, common in formal speech and impassioned pleading.

Note the positioning variation: Pre-verbal (”still maintains”), post-auxiliary (”have still serv’d”), and post-subject (”I still avow”) positions all appear, each carrying slightly different emphases appropriate to the dramatic moment.

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PRONUNCIATION GUIDE: PERIOD FEATURES

The Word “Still”

IPA: /stɪl/

The pronunciation of still has remained remarkably stable from the Elizabethan period to the present. The short /ɪ/ vowel and final dark /l/ were essentially as they are today. This stability reflects the word’s position in the core Germanic vocabulary of English.

Notable Period Pronunciations in This Lesson

Accusation: /æ.kjuː’zeɪ.sjən/ — The suffix -tion retains its original /sjən/ pronunciation, not yet merged into modern /ʃən/.

Suspicion: /sʌs’pɪ.sjən/ — Same suffix pattern as above.

Question: /’kwɛs.tsjən/ — The /kw/ cluster was fully pronounced, and the suffix likewise shows /sjən/.

Treason: /’treː.zən/ — The vowel was longer than in modern pronunciation, and the second syllable had fuller quality.

Malice: /’mæ.lɪs/ — Both syllables received more distinct articulation than in rapid modern speech.

Judgment: /’dʒʌdʒ.mənt/ — The medial syllable -ge- was fully pronounced.

Ambassador: /æm’bæ.sə.dər/ — All four syllables articulated with rhotic /r/ in final position.

Audio Reference Suggestions

For authentic period pronunciation, students may consult recordings by the Original Pronunciation (OP) practitioners at Shakespeare’s Globe theatre. The work of David Crystal and Ben Crystal on “Pronouncing Shakespeare” provides scholarly reconstructions based on historical evidence including rhymes, puns, and contemporary descriptions.

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ABOUT THIS COURSE

The Latinum Institute Elizabethan English Course

The Latinum Institute has been creating language learning materials since 2006, providing autodidactic learners with systematic access to historical and modern languages through the construed text methodology.

Course Index:

https://latinum.substack.com/p/index

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Why Study Elizabethan English?

Early Modern English (c. 1500-1700) represents a crucial period in the development of the language. Mastering this register unlocks access to Shakespeare, the King James Bible, Marlowe, Spenser, Donne, Milton, and the foundational texts of modern English literature, philosophy, and religious thought. Beyond literary access, understanding Elizabethan usage clarifies many features of contemporary English that otherwise appear arbitrary.

The Construed Text Methodology

This course employs interlinear glossing to make Elizabethan syntax immediately transparent to modern readers. Rather than facing a wall of unfamiliar constructions, learners see each word’s function and meaning directly beneath the original text. This method—developed for classical languages and adapted here for historical English—accelerates comprehension while building authentic reading ability.

Autodidactic Design

Every lesson is self-contained, requiring no instructor. The progression from construed text to natural sentences to pure Elizabethan text guides learners toward independent reading. Grammar explanations clarify patterns; cultural context enriches understanding; literary citations connect lessons to authentic masterworks.

The 1000-Word Frequency Curriculum

This course follows a systematic vocabulary progression based on word frequency. By mastering the most common words first, learners rapidly achieve functional reading ability. Lesson 074, covering still, addresses a word that appears hundreds of times in Shakespeare alone—unlocking countless passages with a single lesson.

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✓ Lesson 074 Elizabethan English complete

© 2026 Latinum Institute. All rights reserved.

Very — Intensive Adverb of Degree

INTRODUCTION

The word very serves as one of the most potent intensifiers in the English tongue, employed to heighten the force of adjectives and adverbs. Derived from Old French verai meaning “true” or “real” (itself from Vulgar Latin vērācus), the word originally carried the sense of something being genuinely or truly so. By the Elizabethan period, very had fully transitioned into its modern function as a degree modifier, though it retained occasional use in its older sense of “true” or “actual” (as in “the very man himself”).

In Shakespeare’s English, very appears with remarkable frequency, lending emphasis to descriptions of character, emotion, and circumstance. The word functions to intensify without hyperbole—it signals that the quality described approaches its fullest expression.

Course Index:

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FAQ: What does “very” mean in Elizabethan English?

In Elizabethan English, “very” functions primarily as an intensive adverb meaning “to a high degree” or “extremely,” modifying adjectives and adverbs. It also retains its older meaning of “true,” “actual,” or “genuine” when used attributively before nouns (e.g., “the very thought” meaning “the actual thought itself”).

The fifteen examples in this lesson demonstrate very in its characteristic Elizabethan contexts: heightening emotional states, emphasizing qualities of persons and things, and occasionally preserving its etymological sense of truth or genuineness. Through the construed text format, you will encounter the word in natural syntactic positions while developing an intuitive feel for its rhythmic placement in Early Modern English prose.

Key Takeaways:

• Very functions as a degree intensifier modifying adjectives and adverbs

• Retains occasional use meaning “true” or “actual” before nouns

• Derived from Old French verai (”true”), ultimately from Latin vērācus

• Elizabethan pronunciation features rhotic “r” and more open vowels than modern RP

• Essential for understanding the emphatic rhetoric of Shakespeare’s age

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PRONUNCIATION GUIDE: ELIZABETHAN ENGLISH

Elizabethan English, also termed Early Modern English (c. 1500–1700), differs significantly from modern Received Pronunciation. The Great Vowel Shift was still in progress during Shakespeare’s lifetime, and many features of medieval pronunciation persisted.

Key Phonetic Features:

1. Rhotic /r/: The letter “r” was always pronounced, even after vowels. Words like “father,” “burn,” and “very” carried full r-colouration.

2. The “-tion” ending: Pronounced [sɪən] or [sjən], NOT modern [ʃən]. Thus “invention” sounded like “in-VEN-see-on.”

3. More open vowels: The TRAP vowel was closer to [a] than modern [æ]. The STRUT vowel was higher: [ʊ] or close-mid back.

4. Long vowels in transition: Words like “life” were pronounced closer to [lɐɪf], partway between Middle English [liːf] and modern [laɪf].

5. Preserved consonant clusters: Initial “kn-” in “knife,” “gn-” in “gnaw,” and distinct “wh-” [ʍ] were still sounded.

6. The word “very”: Pronounced [ˈvɛɾi] with a clear alveolar tap [ɾ] and a more open first vowel than modern [ˈveri].

IPA Conventions in This Lesson:

This lesson employs period-appropriate IPA reflecting Elizabethan norms. Note especially:

• /r/ always sounded (rhotic)

• /sɪən/ for “-tion” endings

• /a/ for short “a” in TRAP words

• /ʊ/ for STRUT vowels in many contexts

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SECTION A: INTERLINEAR CONSTRUED TEXT

73.1a The lady is very fair of countenance.

73.1b The /ðə/ the-DEF.ART lady /ˈleːdi/ noblewoman-NOM is /ɪz/ be-3SG.PRES very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG fair /fɛːr/ beautiful-ADJ of /ɔv/ in.respect.of-PREP countenance /ˈkuːntənəns/ face-NOM

73.2a Thou art very bold to speak thus before the King.

73.2b Thou /ðuː/ you-NOM.2SG.FAM art /aːrt/ be-2SG.PRES very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG bold /boːld/ daring-ADJ to /tuː/ in.order.to-PREP speak /speːk/ utter-INF thus /ðʊs/ in.this.manner-ADV before /bɪˈfoːr/ in.presence.of-PREP the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART King /kɪŋ/ monarch-NOM

73.3a This very night we shall depart for France.

73.3b This /ðɪs/ this-DEM very /ˈvɛɾi/ selfsame-ADJ.ATTR night /nɪçt/ evening-NOM we /weː/ we-NOM.1PL shall /ʃal/ will-AUX.FUT depart /dɪˈpaːrt/ leave-INF for /fɔːr/ toward-PREP France /fraːns/ France-NOM

73.4a The poison worketh very swift upon the blood.

73.4b The /ðə/ the-DEF.ART poison /ˈpɔɪzən/ venom-NOM worketh /ˈwʊrkəθ/ work-3SG.PRES very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG swift /swɪft/ quickly-ADV upon /əˈpɔn/ on-PREP the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART blood /blʊːd/ blood-NOM

73.5a I am very loath to believe such villainy.

73.5b I /aɪ/ I-NOM.1SG am /am/ be-1SG.PRES very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG loath /loːθ/ reluctant-ADJ to /tuː/ to-PREP believe /bɪˈliːv/ credit-INF such /sʊtʃ/ such-DEM villainy /ˈvɪləni/ wickedness-NOM

73.6a Her father is a very honourable gentleman of the court.

73.6b Her /hɛːr/ her-GEN.3SG.FEM father /ˈfaːðər/ father-NOM is /ɪz/ be-3SG.PRES a /ə/ a-INDEF.ART very /ˈvɛɾi/ truly-ADV.DEG honourable /ˈɔnərəbl̩/ worthy-ADJ gentleman /ˈdʒɛntl̩mən/ nobleman-NOM of /ɔv/ of-PREP the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART court /kɔːrt/ royal.household-NOM

73.7a The very thought of death maketh me tremble.

73.7b The /ðə/ the-DEF.ART very /ˈvɛɾi/ mere-ADJ.ATTR thought /θɔːçt/ contemplation-NOM of /ɔv/ of-PREP death /dɛːθ/ death-NOM maketh /ˈmaːkəθ/ make-3SG.PRES me /meː/ me-ACC.1SG tremble /ˈtrɛmbl̩/ shake-INF

73.8a They did receive us very kindly at the inn.

73.8b They /ðeɪ/ they-NOM.3PL did /dɪd/ do-PAST.AUX receive /rɪˈsiːv/ welcome-INF us /ʊs/ us-ACC.1PL very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG kindly /ˈkaɪndli/ graciously-ADV at /at/ at-PREP the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART inn /ɪn/ tavern-NOM

73.9a ‘Tis very strange that none have heard the proclamation.

73.9b ‘Tis /tɪz/ it.is-CONTR very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG strange /straːndʒ/ peculiar-ADJ that /ðat/ that-CONJ none /nʊːn/ no.one-PRON have /hav/ have-3PL.PRES heard /hɛːrd/ hear-PAST.PART the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART proclamation /ˌprɔklaˈmeɪsɪən/ announcement-NOM

73.10a Your devotion to the cause is very evident.

73.10b Your /jɔːr/ your-GEN.2PL devotion /dɪˈvoːsɪən/ dedication-NOM to /tuː/ to-PREP the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART cause /kɔːz/ purpose-NOM is /ɪz/ be-3SG.PRES very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG evident /ˈɛvɪdənt/ apparent-ADJ

73.11a She hath been very ill these many weeks past.

73.11b She /ʃeː/ she-NOM.3SG.FEM hath /haθ/ have-3SG.PRES been /biːn/ be-PAST.PART very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG ill /ɪl/ sick-ADJ these /ðiːz/ these-DEM.PL many /ˈmɛni/ many-ADJ weeks /weːks/ week-NOM.PL past /paːst/ gone.by-ADJ

73.12a The traitor met his very doom upon the scaffold.

73.12b The /ðə/ the-DEF.ART traitor /ˈtreɪtər/ betrayer-NOM met /mɛt/ meet-PAST his /hɪz/ his-GEN.3SG.MASC very /ˈvɛɾi/ destined-ADJ.ATTR doom /duːm/ fate-NOM upon /əˈpɔn/ on-PREP the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART scaffold /ˈskafəld/ execution.platform-NOM

73.13a It would please me very well to see thee married.

73.13b It /ɪt/ it-NOM would /wʊd/ will-COND please /pleːz/ gratify-INF me /meː/ me-ACC.1SG very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG well /wɛl/ much-ADV to /tuː/ to-PREP see /seː/ witness-INF thee /ðiː/ you-ACC.2SG.FAM married /ˈmarɪd/ wed-PAST.PART

73.14a The fashion is very new and much admired in London.

73.14b The /ðə/ the-DEF.ART fashion /ˈfaʃɪən/ style-NOM is /ɪz/ be-3SG.PRES very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG new /njuː/ recent-ADJ and /and/ and-CONJ much /mʊtʃ/ greatly-ADV admired /ədˈmaɪərd/ esteemed-PAST.PART in /ɪn/ in-PREP London /ˈlʊndən/ London-NOM

73.15a He is the very picture of his noble grandfather.

73.15b He /heː/ he-NOM.3SG.MASC is /ɪz/ be-3SG.PRES the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART very /ˈvɛɾi/ exact-ADJ.ATTR picture /ˈpɪktʃər/ image-NOM of /ɔv/ of-PREP his /hɪz/ his-GEN.3SG.MASC noble /ˈnoːbl̩/ noble-ADJ grandfather /ˈgraːndfaːðər/ grandfather-NOM

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SECTION B: NATURAL SENTENCES

73.1 The lady is very fair of countenance. The noblewoman possesses a beautiful face.

73.2 Thou art very bold to speak thus before the King. You show great daring to speak this way in the King’s presence.

73.3 This very night we shall depart for France. This selfsame night we will leave for France.

73.4 The poison worketh very swift upon the blood. The venom acts exceedingly quickly in the bloodstream.

73.5 I am very loath to believe such villainy. I am extremely reluctant to credit such wickedness.

73.6 Her father is a very honourable gentleman of the court. Her father is a truly worthy nobleman of the royal household.

73.7 The very thought of death maketh me tremble. The mere contemplation of death makes me shake.

73.8 They did receive us very kindly at the inn. They welcomed us most graciously at the tavern.

73.9 ‘Tis very strange that none have heard the proclamation. It is most peculiar that no one has heard the announcement.

73.10 Your devotion to the cause is very evident. Your dedication to the purpose is exceedingly apparent.

73.11 She hath been very ill these many weeks past. She has been extremely sick for these many weeks gone by.

73.12 The traitor met his very doom upon the scaffold. The betrayer met his destined fate upon the execution platform.

73.13 It would please me very well to see thee married. It would greatly gratify me to see you wed.

73.14 The fashion is very new and much admired in London. The style is quite recent and greatly esteemed in London.

73.15 He is the very picture of his noble grandfather. He is the exact image of his noble grandfather.

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SECTION C: ELIZABETHAN TEXT ONLY

73.1 The lady is very fair of countenance.

73.2 Thou art very bold to speak thus before the King.

73.3 This very night we shall depart for France.

73.4 The poison worketh very swift upon the blood.

73.5 I am very loath to believe such villainy.

73.6 Her father is a very honourable gentleman of the court.

73.7 The very thought of death maketh me tremble.

73.8 They did receive us very kindly at the inn.

73.9 ‘Tis very strange that none have heard the proclamation.

73.10 Your devotion to the cause is very evident.

73.11 She hath been very ill these many weeks past.

73.12 The traitor met his very doom upon the scaffold.

73.13 It would please me very well to see thee married.

73.14 The fashion is very new and much admired in London.

73.15 He is the very picture of his noble grandfather.

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SECTION D: GRAMMAR NOTES

The Dual Functions of “Very”

In Elizabethan English, very operates in two distinct grammatical roles:

1. Degree Adverb (Intensive)

As an adverb of degree, very modifies adjectives and other adverbs, intensifying their meaning without changing their semantic content. This is its most frequent use:

• “very fair” (73.1) — intensifies the adjective “fair”

• “very bold” (73.2) — intensifies the adjective “bold”

• “very swift” (73.4) — intensifies the adverb “swift”

• “very kindly” (73.8) — intensifies the adverb “kindly”

• “very well” (73.13) — intensifies the adverb “well”

Note that very modifies gradable adjectives—those admitting degrees (fair, fairer, fairest). It does not typically modify absolute adjectives like “dead” or “perfect” in careful usage.

2. Attributive Adjective (Emphatic/Identifying)

In its older function, very serves as an attributive adjective meaning “true,” “actual,” “selfsame,” or “mere.” It precedes nouns directly:

• “this very night” (73.3) — this selfsame night, this particular night

• “the very thought” (73.7) — the mere thought, the thought itself

• “his very doom” (73.12) — his destined doom, his actual fate

• “the very picture” (73.15) — the exact image, the true likeness

This usage emphasizes identity or essence rather than degree.

Elizabethan Verb Forms

Several archaic verb forms appear in these sentences:

• worketh (73.4): Third person singular present indicative with -eth suffix, an alternative to -es/-s

• maketh (73.8): Same pattern

• hath (73.11): Third person singular present of “have”

• art (73.2): Second person singular present of “be” (with thou)

Thou/Thee/Thy Distinctions

The second person familiar pronoun appears in several cases:

• Thou (73.2): nominative case, subject

• thee (73.13): accusative/objective case, object

• Thy (implied in address): possessive determiner

These familiar forms contrast with you/your, which in Elizabethan usage served as both plural and formal singular.

Pronunciation Note: “-tion” Endings

Words ending in “-tion” (proclamation 73.9, devotion 73.10, fashion 73.14) receive period pronunciation [sɪən], creating an additional syllable compared to modern pronunciation. Thus:

• proclamation: /ˌprɔklaˈmeɪsɪən/ (five syllables)

• devotion: /dɪˈvoːsɪən/ (four syllables)

• fashion: /ˈfaʃɪən/ (three syllables, note: already shifted in some speakers)

This fuller pronunciation affects both scansion in verse and the rhythmic flow of prose.

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SECTION E: CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT

“Very” in the Elizabethan Social Register

The intensifier very carried particular weight in Elizabethan discourse, operating within a culture obsessed with degree, rank, and the precise gradation of qualities. When a courtier described someone as “very honourable,” the modifier signaled placement within a finely calibrated hierarchy of honour—not mere hyperbole but specific social positioning.

The word’s etymological connection to truth (verai, “true”) lingered in consciousness. To call something “very” was to assert its genuine, unfeigned quality—a significant claim in an age deeply concerned with the gap between appearance and reality, seeming and being.

The Great Vowel Shift in Progress

Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived through one of the most dramatic phonological transformations in English history. The Great Vowel Shift, occurring roughly between 1400 and 1700, systematically raised the articulation point of long vowels. During the Elizabethan period, this shift was incomplete, producing a sound system significantly different from both Chaucer’s Middle English and our modern pronunciation.

For students approaching Shakespeare’s works, this explains why certain rhymes and puns that worked perfectly in original pronunciation fall flat today. The word “reason” and “raisin” were homophones; “hour” sounded like “whore” (enabling bawdy wordplay in As You Like It). Understanding period pronunciation unlocks layers of meaning otherwise lost.

The Theatre and the Court

Elizabethan English existed across a spectrum from courtly refinement to street argot, with the public theatres serving as a remarkable meeting ground. Shakespeare’s plays were written to appeal simultaneously to groundlings paying a penny to stand and nobles in the galleries. The language had to work across these audiences—very intensifying descriptions of both common and aristocratic life.

The phrase “very honourable gentleman of the court” (73.6) positions a character socially with precision. The theatre-goer would understand “honourable” as a near-technical term of rank, modified by “very” to indicate this was no marginal figure but someone genuinely embedded in courtly status.

Religious and Political Resonance

The Elizabethan period saw English consolidate its position against Latin as the language of education, law, and increasingly, worship. The Bible had recently appeared in English translation, and words like very acquired theological resonance. The phrase “the very thought of death maketh me tremble” (73.7) echoes the contemplative vocabulary of religious meditation, where the “very” soul faced “very” judgment.

Similarly, political language exploited intensifiers carefully. “Your devotion to the cause” (73.10) could describe religious, political, or personal loyalty—domains that were, in this era, frequently entangled.

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SECTION F: LITERARY CITATION

From William Shakespeare, Hamlet, Act I, Scene II:

“He was a man, take him for all in all, I shall not look upon his like again.”

While very does not appear in this exact passage, Hamlet’s praise of his father exemplifies the Elizabethan rhetorical mode of emphatic characterization. Compare with:

From William Shakespeare, Othello, Act II, Scene I:

“She is indeed perfection.”

And with very explicitly employed:

From William Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice, Act III, Scene II:

“The world is still deceived with ornament. In law, what plea so tainted and corrupt, But, being seasoned with a gracious voice, Obscures the show of evil? In religion, What damnèd error, but some sober brow Will bless it and approve it with a text, Hiding the grossness with fair ornament? There is no vice so simple but assumes Some mark of virtue on his outward parts.”

Bassanio here meditates on the gap between appearance and reality—the very concern that makes the word’s dual meaning (intensive and “true”) so resonant.

From William Shakespeare, Hamlet, Act III, Scene IV:

“O Hamlet, thou hast cleft my heart in twain.” “O, throw away the worser part of it, And live the purer with the other half.”

The Queen and Hamlet speak of the very heart—its essential nature, split between corruption and potential redemption.

From Christopher Marlowe, Doctor Faustus, Scene XIV:

“See, see where Christ’s blood streams in the firmament!”

Marlowe’s Faustus confronts the very moment of damnation, the word’s absent presence felt in the absolute desperation of the scene.

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GENRE SECTION: DRAMATIC DIALOGUE

A scene of intrigue and revelation at court, demonstrating “very” in natural dramatic context.

Part A: Interlinear Construed Text

73.16a Marry, this is very welcome news indeed.

73.16b Marry /ˈmari/ indeed-INTERJ this /ðɪs/ this-DEM is /ɪz/ be-3SG.PRES very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG welcome /ˈwɛlkəm/ pleasing-ADJ news /njuːz/ tidings-NOM indeed /ɪnˈdiːd/ truly-ADV

73.17a The ambassador is very eager to present his petition.

73.17b The /ðə/ the-DEF.ART ambassador /amˈbasədər/ envoy-NOM is /ɪz/ be-3SG.PRES very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG eager /ˈiːgər/ desirous-ADJ to /tuː/ to-PREP present /prɪˈzɛnt/ deliver-INF his /hɪz/ his-GEN.3SG.MASC petition /pɪˈtɪsɪən/ formal.request-NOM

73.18a Hast thou examined the very substance of his complaint?

73.18b Hast /hast/ have-2SG.PRES thou /ðuː/ you-NOM.2SG.FAM examined /ɪgˈzamɪnd/ investigate-PAST.PART the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART very /ˈvɛɾi/ actual-ADJ.ATTR substance /ˈsʊbstəns/ essence-NOM of /ɔv/ of-PREP his /hɪz/ his-GEN.3SG.MASC complaint /kəmˈpleɪnt/ grievance-NOM

73.19a I find his manner very suspicious, my lord.

73.19b I /aɪ/ I-NOM.1SG find /faɪnd/ consider-1SG.PRES his /hɪz/ his-GEN.3SG.MASC manner /ˈmanər/ bearing-NOM very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG suspicious /sʊsˈpɪsɪəs/ doubtful-ADJ my /maɪ/ my-GEN.1SG lord /lɔːrd/ lord-VOC

73.20a ‘Twas the very hour appointed for the secret meeting.

73.20b ‘Twas /twɔz/ it.was-CONTR the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART very /ˈvɛɾi/ exact-ADJ.ATTR hour /ˈuːər/ time-NOM appointed /əˈpɔɪntɪd/ designated-PAST.PART for /fɔːr/ for-PREP the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART secret /ˈsiːkrɪt/ hidden-ADJ meeting /ˈmiːtɪŋ/ assembly-NOM

73.21a The Queen is very gracious to those who serve her faithfully.

73.21b The /ðə/ the-DEF.ART Queen /kwiːn/ queen-NOM is /ɪz/ be-3SG.PRES very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG gracious /ˈgreɪsɪəs/ benevolent-ADJ to /tuː/ to-PREP those /ðoːz/ those-DEM.PL who /huː/ who-REL.PRON serve /sɛːrv/ attend-3PL.PRES her /hɛːr/ her-ACC.3SG.FEM faithfully /ˈfeɪθfəli/ loyally-ADV

73.22a They whisper very softly in the presence chamber.

73.22b They /ðeɪ/ they-NOM.3PL whisper /ˈʍɪspər/ murmur-3PL.PRES very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG softly /ˈsɔftli/ quietly-ADV in /ɪn/ in-PREP the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART presence /ˈprɛzəns/ audience-ADJ chamber /ˈtʃeɪmbər/ room-NOM

73.23a Methinks he doth protest his innocence very much.

73.23b Methinks /mɪˈθɪŋks/ it.seems.to.me-V.IMPERS he /heː/ he-NOM.3SG.MASC doth /dʊθ/ do-3SG.PRES.AUX protest /prəˈtɛst/ assert-INF his /hɪz/ his-GEN.3SG.MASC innocence /ˈɪnəsəns/ guiltlessness-NOM very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG much /mʊtʃ/ greatly-ADV

73.24a The letter beareth the very seal of the Lord Chancellor.

73.24b The /ðə/ the-DEF.ART letter /ˈlɛtər/ epistle-NOM beareth /ˈbɛːrəθ/ bear-3SG.PRES the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART very /ˈvɛɾi/ authentic-ADJ.ATTR seal /siːl/ seal-NOM of /ɔv/ of-PREP the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART Lord /lɔːrd/ lord-TITLE Chancellor /ˈtʃaːnsələr/ chancellor-NOM

73.25a Art thou very certain of what thou hast seen?

73.25b Art /aːrt/ be-2SG.PRES thou /ðuː/ you-NOM.2SG.FAM very /ˈvɛɾi/ entirely-ADV.DEG certain /ˈsɛːrtən/ sure-ADJ of /ɔv/ of-PREP what /ʍat/ what-REL.PRON thou /ðuː/ you-NOM.2SG.FAM hast /hast/ have-2SG.PRES seen /siːn/ see-PAST.PART

73.26a The condition of the roads is very dangerous after the rains.

73.26b The /ðə/ the-DEF.ART condition /kənˈdɪsɪən/ state-NOM of /ɔv/ of-PREP the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART roads /roːdz/ road-NOM.PL is /ɪz/ be-3SG.PRES very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG dangerous /ˈdeɪndʒərəs/ perilous-ADJ after /ˈaːftər/ following-PREP the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART rains /reɪnz/ rain-NOM.PL

73.27a Her education hath made her very accomplished in music.

73.27b Her /hɛːr/ her-GEN.3SG.FEM education /ˌɛdjuːˈkeɪsɪən/ schooling-NOM hath /haθ/ have-3SG.PRES made /meɪd/ make-PAST.PART her /hɛːr/ her-ACC.3SG.FEM very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG accomplished /əˈkɔmplɪʃt/ skilled-ADJ in /ɪn/ in-PREP music /ˈmjuːzɪk/ music-NOM

73.28a I am very glad that the negotiation hath concluded well.

73.28b I /aɪ/ I-NOM.1SG am /am/ be-1SG.PRES very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG glad /glad/ pleased-ADJ that /ðat/ that-CONJ the /ðə/ the-DEF.ART negotiation /nɪˌgoːsɪˈeɪsɪən/ treaty.discussion-NOM hath /haθ/ have-3SG.PRES concluded /kənˈkluːdɪd/ end-PAST.PART well /wɛl/ favourably-ADV

73.29a Stand thou in this very spot until I return.

73.29b Stand /stand/ stand-IMP thou /ðuː/ you-NOM.2SG.FAM in /ɪn/ in-PREP this /ðɪs/ this-DEM very /ˈvɛɾi/ exact-ADJ.ATTR spot /spɔt/ place-NOM until /ʊnˈtɪl/ until-CONJ I /aɪ/ I-NOM.1SG return /rɪˈtɛːrn/ come.back-1SG.PRES

73.30a The situation is very grave, and requireth immediate attention.

73.30b The /ðə/ the-DEF.ART situation /ˌsɪtjuːˈeɪsɪən/ circumstance-NOM is /ɪz/ be-3SG.PRES very /ˈvɛɾi/ exceedingly-ADV.DEG grave /greɪv/ serious-ADJ and /and/ and-CONJ requireth /rɪˈkwaɪərəθ/ require-3SG.PRES immediate /ɪˈmiːdɪət/ urgent-ADJ attention /əˈtɛnsɪən/ regard-NOM

Part B: Natural Sentences

73.16 Marry, this is very welcome news indeed. Indeed, this is most pleasing tidings truly.

73.17 The ambassador is very eager to present his petition. The envoy is extremely desirous to deliver his formal request.

73.18 Hast thou examined the very substance of his complaint? Have you investigated the actual essence of his grievance?

73.19 I find his manner very suspicious, my lord. I consider his bearing exceedingly doubtful, my lord.

73.20 ‘Twas the very hour appointed for the secret meeting. It was the exact time designated for the hidden assembly.

73.21 The Queen is very gracious to those who serve her faithfully. The Queen is exceedingly benevolent to those who attend her loyally.

73.22 They whisper very softly in the presence chamber. They murmur exceedingly quietly in the audience room.

73.23 Methinks he doth protest his innocence very much. It seems to me he asserts his guiltlessness too greatly.

73.24 The letter beareth the very seal of the Lord Chancellor. The epistle carries the authentic seal of the Lord Chancellor.

73.25 Art thou very certain of what thou hast seen? Are you entirely sure of what you have witnessed?

73.26 The condition of the roads is very dangerous after the rains. The state of the roads is exceedingly perilous following the rains.

73.27 Her education hath made her very accomplished in music. Her schooling has made her exceedingly skilled in music.

73.28 I am very glad that the negotiation hath concluded well. I am extremely pleased that the treaty discussion has ended favourably.

73.29 Stand thou in this very spot until I return. Remain in this exact place until I come back.

73.30 The situation is very grave, and requireth immediate attention. The circumstance is exceedingly serious and requires urgent regard.

Part C: Elizabethan Text Only

73.16 Marry, this is very welcome news indeed.

73.17 The ambassador is very eager to present his petition.

73.18 Hast thou examined the very substance of his complaint?

73.19 I find his manner very suspicious, my lord.

73.20 ‘Twas the very hour appointed for the secret meeting.

73.21 The Queen is very gracious to those who serve her faithfully.

73.22 They whisper very softly in the presence chamber.

73.23 Methinks he doth protest his innocence very much.

73.24 The letter beareth the very seal of the Lord Chancellor.

73.25 Art thou very certain of what thou hast seen?

73.26 The condition of the roads is very dangerous after the rains.

73.27 Her education hath made her very accomplished in music.

73.28 I am very glad that the negotiation hath concluded well.

73.29 Stand thou in this very spot until I return.

73.30 The situation is very grave, and requireth immediate attention.

Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section

“-tion” Words with Period Pronunciation

The genre section introduces numerous words ending in “-tion” and “-sion,” demonstrating Elizabethan pronunciation conventions:

• petition (73.17): /pɪˈtɪsɪən/ — four syllables with [sɪən] ending

• condition (73.26): /kənˈdɪsɪən/ — four syllables

• education (73.27): /ˌɛdjuːˈkeɪsɪən/ — five syllables

• negotiation (73.28): /nɪˌgoːsɪˈeɪsɪən/ — six syllables

• situation (73.30): /ˌsɪtjuːˈeɪsɪən/ — five syllables

• attention (73.30): /əˈtɛnsɪən/ — four syllables

Compare with modern RP:

• petition: /pɪˈtɪʃn̩/ — three syllables

• condition: /kənˈdɪʃn̩/ — three syllables

This difference of one full syllable per word significantly affects verse scansion and prose rhythm.

The Impersonal “Methinks”

“Methinks” (73.23) functions as an impersonal verb meaning “it seems to me.” The “me” is dative, not nominative—the construction literally means “to me it thinks/seems.” This archaic form appears frequently in Shakespeare:

“Methinks the lady doth protest too much.” — Hamlet

Interjection “Marry”

“Marry” (73.16) is a mild oath derived from “by Mary” (the Virgin Mary). By the Elizabethan period, it had weakened to an emphatic interjection expressing surprise, affirmation, or transition—roughly equivalent to modern “indeed” or “why.”

The Auxiliary “Doth”

“Doth” (73.23) serves as the third person singular present indicative of “do” when used as an auxiliary verb for emphasis or in questions. The phrase “he doth protest” uses “doth” to add rhetorical emphasis, a construction that would later evolve into the modern emphatic “he does protest.”

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ABOUT THIS COURSE

This lesson forms part of the Elizabethan English series from the Latinum Institute, designed for autodidact learners seeking mastery of Early Modern English as used in the works of Shakespeare, Marlowe, and their contemporaries.

The Latinum Institute has been creating language learning materials since 2006, specializing in the construed text methodology that makes complex historical languages accessible to independent learners. Our approach employs interlinear glossing—each word individually analyzed and translated—enabling students to internalize grammatical patterns naturally through extensive reading rather than abstract rule memorization.

Why Study Elizabethan English?

The English of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries represents the foundation of modern literary English. Understanding its pronunciation, grammar, and idiom unlocks Shakespeare’s wordplay, reveals lost rhymes and puns, and provides insight into the historical development of our language.

Course Features:

• 1000-word frequency-based curriculum

• Period-accurate IPA pronunciation

• Self-contained lessons with full interlinear glossing

• Cultural and historical context for each lesson word

• Literary citations from primary sources

• Genre sections demonstrating natural usage

Links:

Course Index: https://latinum.substack.com/p/index

Reviews: https://uk.trustpilot.com/review/latinum.org.uk

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Lesson 73 Complete

Finde (/faɪnd/) — To Find (Verb of Discovery and Perception)

Course Index:

https://latinum.substack.com/p/index

INTRODUCTION

What does “find” mean in Elizabethan English?

The verb finde in Early Modern English (c. 1550–1650) encompasses the full semantic range of modern “find” — to discover, to perceive, to judge, to provide for, and to experience. Shakespeare and his contemporaries employed this verb with remarkable versatility, using it both literally (to locate something lost) and figuratively (to discover truth, to experience emotion, to render judgment).

In Elizabethan usage, finde carries particular weight in legal and philosophical contexts. To “find” a verdict meant to render judgment; to “find” one’s heart meant to discover one’s true feelings. The verb also appeared in the now-archaic sense of “to provide for” — a husband might be expected to “find” his wife in necessities.

This lesson presents finde across its various meanings through fifteen core examples and fifteen additional examples in a dramatic genre section, all rendered with Original Pronunciation (OP) transcriptions reflecting how educated Londoners of Shakespeare’s era would have spoken.

Key Takeaways:

• Finde conjugates: I finde, thou findest, he/she findeth, we/they finde

• The past tense is found (/faʊnd/ in OP)

• The past participle is found (often appearing as “I have found”)

• Note the “-eth” third person singular ending pronounced /əθ/

• Period spelling often shows “finde” with final silent -e

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ORIGINAL PRONUNCIATION GUIDE

Key Sound Differences from Modern English:

The “-tion” suffix in words like perfection, ambition, condition was pronounced /sɪən/ (”see-on”) rather than modern /ʃən/ (”shun”). Thus perfection = /pərˈfɛksɪən/.

Long vowels had not yet completed the Great Vowel Shift:

• “find” retained a pure /aɪ/ but earlier forms showed /iː/

• “found” = /faʊnd/ (similar to modern)

• “thee” = /ðiː/ (rhymes with modern “thee”)

The letter ‘r’ was pronounced in all positions (rhotic accent), unlike modern Received Pronunciation.

Final “-ed” in past tenses was often pronounced as a full syllable /ɪd/ or /əd/ in elevated speech.

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SECTION A: INTERLINEAR CONSTRUED TEXT

72.1a I finde no fault in this man. 72.1b I (/aɪ/) I finde (/faɪnd/) find no (/noː/) no fault (/fɔːlt/) fault in (/ɪn/) in this (/ðɪs/) this man (/man/) man

72.2a Thou findest thy heart most troubled. 72.2b Thou (/ðaʊ/) thou findest (/ˈfaɪndɪst/) find-2SG thy (/ðaɪ/) thy heart (/hɛːrt/) heart most (/moːst/) most troubled (/ˈtrʊbld/) troubled

72.3a She findeth comfort in her prayers. 72.3b She (/ʃiː/) she findeth (/ˈfaɪndəθ/) find-3SG comfort (/ˈkʊmfərt/) comfort in (/ɪn/) in her (/hɛːr/) her prayers (/prɛːrz/) prayers

72.4a We finde ourselves in strange condition. 72.4b We (/wiː/) we finde (/faɪnd/) find ourselves (/aʊrˈsɛlvz/) ourselves in (/ɪn/) in strange (/strɛːndʒ/) strange condition (/kənˈdɪsɪən/) condition

72.5a The honest man findeth truth at last. 72.5b The (/ðə/) the honest (/ˈɒnɪst/) honest man (/man/) man findeth (/ˈfaɪndəθ/) find-3SG truth (/truːθ/) truth at (/at/) at last (/laːst/) last

72.6a Canst thou finde the letters I did leave thee? 72.6b Canst (/kanst/) can-2SG thou (/ðaʊ/) thou finde (/faɪnd/) find the (/ðə/) the letters (/ˈlɛtərz/) letters I (/aɪ/) I did (/dɪd/) did leave (/liːv/) leave thee (/ðiː/) thee

72.7a They found the villain hid within the wood. 72.7b They (/ðɛɪ/) they found (/faʊnd/) found-PAST the (/ðə/) the villain (/ˈvɪlən/) villain hid (/hɪd/) hidden within (/wɪðˈɪn/) within the (/ðə/) the wood (/wʊd/) wood

72.8a What perfection findest thou in mortal flesh? 72.8b What (/hwat/) what perfection (/pərˈfɛksɪən/) perfection findest (/ˈfaɪndɪst/) find-2SG thou (/ðaʊ/) thou in (/ɪn/) in mortal (/ˈmɔːrtəl/) mortal flesh (/flɛʃ/) flesh

72.9a I have found mine enemy most treacherous. 72.9b I (/aɪ/) I have (/hav/) have found (/faʊnd/) found-PTCP mine (/maɪn/) my enemy (/ˈɛnəmiː/) enemy most (/moːst/) most treacherous (/ˈtrɛtʃərəs/) treacherous

72.10a The jury found the prisoner guilty of murder. 72.10b The (/ðə/) the jury (/ˈdʒuːriː/) jury found (/faʊnd/) found-PAST the (/ðə/) the prisoner (/ˈprɪzənər/) prisoner guilty (/ˈgɪltiː/) guilty of (/ɒv/) of murder (/ˈmʊrdər/) murder

72.11a Her father will finde her in meat and lodging. 72.11b Her (/hɛːr/) her father (/ˈfaːðər/) father will (/wɪl/) will finde (/faɪnd/) find her (/hɛːr/) her in (/ɪn/) in meat (/miːt/) food and (/and/) and lodging (/ˈlɒdʒɪŋ/) lodging

72.12a Ambition findeth no satisfaction in conquest. 72.12b Ambition (/amˈbɪsɪən/) ambition findeth (/ˈfaɪndəθ/) find-3SG no (/noː/) no satisfaction (/satɪsˈfaksɪən/) satisfaction in (/ɪn/) in conquest (/ˈkɒŋkwɛst/) conquest

72.13a Go finde thy brother ere the sun doth set. 72.13b Go (/goː/) go-IMP finde (/faɪnd/) find thy (/ðaɪ/) thy brother (/ˈbrʊðər/) brother ere (/ɛːr/) before the (/ðə/) the sun (/sʊn/) sun doth (/dʊθ/) does set (/sɛt/) set

72.14a I find it passing strange that he should flee. 72.14b I (/aɪ/) I find (/faɪnd/) find it (/ɪt/) it passing (/ˈpaːsɪŋ/) exceedingly strange (/strɛːndʒ/) strange that (/ðat/) that he (/hiː/) he should (/ʃʊd/) should flee (/fliː/) flee

72.15a She never found occasion to repent her choice. 72.15b She (/ʃiː/) she never (/ˈnɛvər/) never found (/faʊnd/) found-PAST occasion (/əˈkɛːzɪən/) occasion to (/tuː/) to repent (/rɪˈpɛnt/) repent her (/hɛːr/) her choice (/tʃɔɪs/) choice

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SECTION B: NATURAL SENTENCES

72.1 I finde no fault in this man. “I find no fault in this man.”

72.2 Thou findest thy heart most troubled. “You find your heart most troubled.”

72.3 She findeth comfort in her prayers. “She finds comfort in her prayers.”

72.4 We finde ourselves in strange condition. “We find ourselves in a strange condition.”

72.5 The honest man findeth truth at last. “The honest man finds truth at last.”

72.6 Canst thou finde the letters I did leave thee? “Can you find the letters I left you?”

72.7 They found the villain hid within the wood. “They found the villain hidden within the forest.”

72.8 What perfection findest thou in mortal flesh? “What perfection do you find in mortal flesh?”

72.9 I have found mine enemy most treacherous. “I have found my enemy most treacherous.”

72.10 The jury found the prisoner guilty of murder. “The jury found the prisoner guilty of murder.”

72.11 Her father will finde her in meat and lodging. “Her father will provide her with food and lodging.”

72.12 Ambition findeth no satisfaction in conquest. “Ambition finds no satisfaction in conquest.”

72.13 Go finde thy brother ere the sun doth set. “Go find your brother before the sun sets.”

72.14 I find it passing strange that he should flee. “I find it exceedingly strange that he should flee.”

72.15 She never found occasion to repent her choice. “She never found occasion to regret her choice.”

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SECTION C: ELIZABETHAN TEXT ONLY

72.1 I finde no fault in this man.

72.2 Thou findest thy heart most troubled.

72.3 She findeth comfort in her prayers.

72.4 We finde ourselves in strange condition.

72.5 The honest man findeth truth at last.

72.6 Canst thou finde the letters I did leave thee?

72.7 They found the villain hid within the wood.

72.8 What perfection findest thou in mortal flesh?

72.9 I have found mine enemy most treacherous.

72.10 The jury found the prisoner guilty of murder.

72.11 Her father will finde her in meat and lodging.

72.12 Ambition findeth no satisfaction in conquest.

72.13 Go finde thy brother ere the sun doth set.

72.14 I find it passing strange that he should flee.

72.15 She never found occasion to repent her choice.

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SECTION D: GRAMMAR EXPLANATION

These are the grammar rules for “finde” in Elizabethan English:

Present Tense Conjugation: The verb finde follows the standard Early Modern English conjugation pattern with distinctive second and third person singular endings.

First person singular: I finde (/faɪnd/) Second person singular (familiar): thou findest (/ˈfaɪndɪst/) Third person singular: he/she/it findeth (/ˈfaɪndəθ/) First person plural: we finde (/faɪnd/) Second person plural/formal singular: you finde (/faɪnd/) Third person plural: they finde (/faɪnd/)

Past Tense: All persons: found (/faʊnd/) Note: The auxiliary “did” could be used for emphasis or in questions: “I did finde” or “didst thou finde?”

Past Participle: Found — used with auxiliaries: “I have found,” “it was found,” “having found”

Present Participle: Finding (/ˈfaɪndɪŋ/) — “finding no cause,” “upon finding the letter”

The Thou/You Distinction: Elizabethan English maintained the T-V distinction inherited from earlier English. Thou/thee/thy was used for addressing social inferiors, intimates, children, and in passionate speech (both loving and contemptuous). You/your was the polite form for equals and superiors, and had become the default in most formal situations by Shakespeare’s time.

When a character suddenly switches from “you” to “thou,” it signals either growing intimacy or deliberate insult. Thus “thou findest” in context carries social information beyond mere grammar.

The “-eth” vs. “-s” Third Person: By the late sixteenth century, the northern “-s” ending (he finds) was competing with the southern “-eth” (he findeth). Shakespeare used both, with “-eth” slightly more common in formal or poetic contexts. Both were pronounced: “-eth” as /əθ/ and “-s” as /z/ or /s/.

The Archaic Meaning “To Provide”: In legal and domestic contexts, “to finde” could mean “to provide for” or “to supply necessities.” A contract might specify that a master shall “finde” an apprentice in food and clothing. This usage survives in the phrase “all found” meaning “with all necessities provided.”

Common Mistakes:

• Using “thou find” instead of “thou findest” — the “-est” ending is obligatory with “thou”

• Pronouncing “-tion” as modern /ʃən/ instead of period-authentic /sɪən/

• Forgetting that “doth” (does) and “hath” (has) are the third person forms of auxiliary verbs

• Treating “thou” as merely archaic rather than understanding its social significance

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SECTION E: CULTURAL CONTEXT

Legal Usage: In Elizabethan courts, juries “found” verdicts. To “find a bill” meant a grand jury determined sufficient evidence existed for trial. This legal sense of “find” as “to determine by judgment” permeates Shakespeare’s trial scenes and gives weight to everyday uses: when characters say “I find him honest,” they invoke the authority of judicial finding.

Religious Resonance: The phrase “I find no fault in this man” echoes Pilate’s words regarding Christ (John 18:38). Elizabethan audiences, immersed in biblical language, would recognize such allusions. To “find” grace, mercy, or salvation carried profound spiritual weight.

Proverbial Expressions: Several proverbs featuring “find” circulated widely: “Seek and ye shall find” (biblical); “Finders keepers, losers weepers”; “He that would find good must first seek it.” Speakers could invoke these commonplaces for rhetorical effect.

The Discovery Trope: The age of exploration gave “find” particular resonance. To “find” new lands, peoples, and wonders was the great enterprise of the era. This semantic richness — finding as physical discovery, intellectual revelation, and spiritual awakening — made “finde” a verb of tremendous dramatic potential.

Register Variation: Educated speakers employed Latinate synonyms like “discover,” “perceive,” “detect,” and “ascertain” in elevated contexts, reserving plain “find” for ordinary speech. Yet “find” maintained dignity in all registers, appropriate alike for kings and clowns.

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SECTION F: LITERARY CITATION

From William Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice (c. 1596), Act IV, Scene 1:

F-A: Interlinear Construed Text

I (/aɪ/) I am (/am/) am not (/nɒt/) not bound (/baʊnd/) bound to (/tuː/) to please (/pliːz/) please thee (/ðiː/) thee with (/wɪθ/) with my (/maɪ/) my answer. (/ˈaːnsər/) answer

Do (/duː/) do all (/ɔːl/) all men (/mɛn/) men kill (/kɪl/) kill the (/ðə/) the things (/θɪŋz/) things they (/ðɛɪ/) they do (/duː/) do not (/nɒt/) not love? (/lʊv/) love

Hates (/hɛːts/) hates any (/ˈɛniː/) any man (/man/) man the (/ðə/) the thing (/θɪŋ/) thing he (/hiː/) he would (/wʊd/) would not (/nɒt/) not kill? (/kɪl/) kill

Every (/ˈɛvriː/) every offence (/əˈfɛns/) offence is (/ɪz/) is not (/nɒt/) not a (/ə/) a hate (/hɛːt/) hate at (/at/) at first. (/fɛːrst/) first

What, (/hwat/) what wouldst (/wʊdst/) would-2SG thou (/ðaʊ/) thou have (/hav/) have a (/ə/) a serpent (/ˈsɛːrpənt/) serpent sting (/stɪŋ/) sting thee (/ðiː/) thee twice? (/twaɪs/) twice

I (/aɪ/) I pray (/prɛɪ/) pray you, (/juː/) you think (/θɪŋk/) think you (/juː/) you question (/ˈkwɛstʃən/) question-with with (/wɪθ/) with the (/ðə/) the Jew. (/dʒuː/) Jew

You (/juː/) you may (/mɛɪ/) may as (/az/) as well (/wɛl/) well go (/goː/) go stand (/stand/) stand upon (/əˈpɒn/) upon the (/ðə/) the beach (/biːtʃ/) beach

And (/and/) and bid (/bɪd/) bid the (/ðə/) the main (/mɛɪn/) main flood (/flʊd/) flood bate (/bɛːt/) abate his (/hɪz/) his usual (/ˈjuːʒuəl/) usual height; (/haɪt/) height

You (/juː/) you may (/mɛɪ/) may as (/az/) as well (/wɛl/) well use (/juːz/) use question (/ˈkwɛstʃən/) question with (/wɪθ/) with the (/ðə/) the wolf (/wʊlf/) wolf

Why (/hwaɪ/) why he (/hiː/) he hath (/haθ/) has made (/mɛːd/) made the (/ðə/) the ewe (/juː/) ewe bleat (/bliːt/) bleat for (/fɔːr/) for the (/ðə/) the lamb; (/lam/) lamb

You (/juː/) you may (/mɛɪ/) may as (/az/) as well (/wɛl/) well forbid (/fɔːrˈbɪd/) forbid the (/ðə/) the mountain (/ˈmaʊntɪn/) mountain pines (/paɪnz/) pines

To (/tuː/) to wag (/wag/) wag their (/ðɛːr/) their high (/haɪ/) high tops (/tɒps/) tops and (/and/) and to (/tuː/) to make (/mɛːk/) make no (/noː/) no noise (/nɔɪz/) noise

When (/hwɛn/) when they (/ðɛɪ/) they are (/aːr/) are fretted (/ˈfrɛtɪd/) vexed with (/wɪθ/) with the (/ðə/) the gusts (/gʊsts/) gusts of (/ɒv/) of heaven; (/ˈhɛvən/) heaven

As (/az/) as seek (/siːk/) seek to (/tuː/) to soften (/ˈsɒftən/) soften that— (/ðat/) that than (/ðan/) than which (/hwɪtʃ/) which what’s (/hwats/) what-is harder?— (/ˈhaːrdər/) harder

His (/hɪz/) his Jewish (/ˈdʒuːɪʃ/) Jewish heart. (/haːrt/) heart

F-B: Natural Text with Translation

I am not bound to please thee with my answer. Do all men kill the things they do not love? Hates any man the thing he would not kill? Every offence is not a hate at first. What, wouldst thou have a serpent sting thee twice? I pray you, think you question with the Jew. You may as well go stand upon the beach And bid the main flood bate his usual height; You may as well use question with the wolf Why he hath made the ewe bleat for the lamb; You may as well forbid the mountain pines To wag their high tops and to make no noise When they are fretted with the gusts of heaven; As seek to soften that—than which what’s harder?— His Jewish heart.

“I am not obligated to please you with my answer. Do all men kill what they do not love? Does any man hate what he would not kill? Not every offense begins as hatred. What, would you let a snake bite you twice? I ask you to remember that you are reasoning with a Jew. You might as well stand on the shore and command the tide to lower itself; you might as well argue with the wolf about why he made the sheep cry for her lamb; you might as well forbid the mountain pines to sway and rustle when the winds of heaven blow through them; as seek to soften that—and what could be harder?—his Jewish heart.”

F-C: Elizabethan Text Only

I am not bound to please thee with my answer. Do all men kill the things they do not love? Hates any man the thing he would not kill? Every offence is not a hate at first. What, wouldst thou have a serpent sting thee twice? I pray you, think you question with the Jew. You may as well go stand upon the beach And bid the main flood bate his usual height; You may as well use question with the wolf Why he hath made the ewe bleat for the lamb; You may as well forbid the mountain pines To wag their high tops and to make no noise When they are fretted with the gusts of heaven; As seek to soften that—than which what’s harder?— His Jewish heart.

F-D: Grammar and Vocabulary Notes

This speech by Shylock demonstrates several key grammatical features. Note the thou/you alternation: Shylock uses “thee” (object of “please,” “sting”) when addressing his antagonists with contemptuous familiarity, while “you” appears in the more measured rhetorical questions. The verb “hath” is the third person singular of “have” (modern “has”). The construction “you may as well” introduces the extended metaphor comparing attempts to persuade Shylock to impossible natural phenomena. The verb “bate” (to abate, diminish) shows a characteristic Elizabethan contraction. The relative construction “than which what’s harder” demonstrates the flexible word order possible in Early Modern English syntax. While “find” does not appear in this passage, the speech’s theme of judgment and perception connects directly to our topic word’s semantic field.

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GENRE SECTION: DRAMATIC DIALOGUE

A Scene of Discovery and Revelation

Enter EDMUND, a young gentleman, and MARGERY, his aged nurse, in the hall of a great house. EDMUND searches among papers and books.

Part A: Interlinear Construed Text

72.16a Margery, I have found it! The letter my father hid! 72.16b Margery, (/ˈmaːrdʒəriː/) Margery I (/aɪ/) I have (/hav/) have found (/faʊnd/) found-PTCP it! (/ɪt/) it The (/ðə/) the letter (/ˈlɛtər/) letter my (/maɪ/) my father (/ˈfaːðər/) father hid! (/hɪd/) hid

72.17a What findest thou written therein, young master? 72.17b What (/hwat/) what findest (/ˈfaɪndɪst/) find-2SG thou (/ðaʊ/) thou written (/ˈrɪtən/) written therein, (/ðɛːrˈɪn/) therein young (/jʊŋ/) young master? (/ˈmaːstər/) master

72.18a I finde here such strange information as doth confound me. 72.18b I (/aɪ/) I finde (/faɪnd/) find here (/hiːr/) here such (/sʊtʃ/) such strange (/strɛːndʒ/) strange information (/ɪnfɔːrˈmɛːsɪən/) information as (/az/) as doth (/dʊθ/) does confound (/kənˈfaʊnd/) confound me (/miː/) me

72.19a Tell me, good nurse, for I finde myself most perplexed. 72.19b Tell (/tɛl/) tell-IMP me, (/miː/) me good (/gʊd/) good nurse, (/nɛːrs/) nurse for (/fɔːr/) for I (/aɪ/) I finde (/faɪnd/) find myself (/maɪˈsɛlf/) myself most (/moːst/) most perplexed (/pərˈplɛkst/) perplexed

72.20a My father’s letter speaks of a secret I never found till now. 72.20b My (/maɪ/) my father’s (/ˈfaːðərz/) father-GEN letter (/ˈlɛtər/) letter speaks (/spiːks/) speaks of (/ɒv/) of a (/ə/) a secret (/ˈsiːkrɪt/) secret I (/aɪ/) I never (/ˈnɛvər/) never found (/faʊnd/) found-PAST till (/tɪl/) until now (/naʊ/) now

72.21a Alas, I feared this day would come when thou shouldst finde the truth. 72.21b Alas, (/əˈlas/) alas I (/aɪ/) I feared (/fiːrd/) feared this (/ðɪs/) this day (/dɛɪ/) day would (/wʊd/) would come (/kʊm/) come when (/hwɛn/) when thou (/ðaʊ/) thou shouldst (/ʃʊdst/) should-2SG finde (/faɪnd/) find the (/ðə/) the truth (/truːθ/) truth

72.22a It says he found me as an infant abandon’d by the road. 72.22b It (/ɪt/) it says (/sɛːz/) says he (/hiː/) he found (/faʊnd/) found-PAST me (/miː/) me as (/az/) as an (/ən/) an infant (/ˈɪnfənt/) infant abandon’d (/əˈbandənd/) abandoned by (/baɪ/) by the (/ðə/) the road (/roːd/) road

72.23a Then am I no true son of this house, but a foundling? 72.23b Then (/ðɛn/) then am (/am/) am I (/aɪ/) I no (/noː/) no true (/truː/) true son (/sʊn/) son of (/ɒv/) of this (/ðɪs/) this house, (/haʊs/) house but (/bʊt/) but a (/ə/) a foundling? (/ˈfaʊndlɪŋ/) foundling

72.24a Thou art found and loved, which is more than many born in silk can say. 72.24b Thou (/ðaʊ/) thou art (/aːrt/) are-2SG found (/faʊnd/) found-PTCP and (/and/) and loved, (/lʊvd/) loved which (/hwɪtʃ/) which is (/ɪz/) is more (/mɔːr/) more than (/ðan/) than many (/ˈmɛniː/) many born (/bɔːrn/) born in (/ɪn/) in silk (/sɪlk/) silk can (/kan/) can say (/sɛɪ/) say

72.25a I must finde my true parents, whoever they may prove to be. 72.25b I (/aɪ/) I must (/mʊst/) must finde (/faɪnd/) find my (/maɪ/) my true (/truː/) true parents, (/ˈpɛːrənts/) parents whoever (/huːˈɛvər/) whoever they (/ðɛɪ/) they may (/mɛɪ/) may prove (/pruːv/) prove to (/tuː/) to be (/biː/) be

72.26a What if thou findest them base and poor? Wilt thou love them still? 72.26b What (/hwat/) what if (/ɪf/) if thou (/ðaʊ/) thou findest (/ˈfaɪndɪst/) find-2SG them (/ðɛm/) them base (/bɛːs/) base and (/and/) and poor? (/pʊːr/) poor Wilt (/wɪlt/) will-2SG thou (/ðaʊ/) thou love (/lʊv/) love them (/ðɛm/) them still? (/stɪl/) still

72.27a Blood findeth blood, they say. I shall know them by instinct. 72.27b Blood (/blʊd/) blood findeth (/ˈfaɪndəθ/) find-3SG blood, (/blʊd/) blood they (/ðɛɪ/) they say (/sɛɪ/) say I (/aɪ/) I shall (/ʃal/) shall know (/noː/) know them (/ðɛm/) them by (/baɪ/) by instinct (/ˈɪnstɪŋkt/) instinct

72.28a The wise man findeth his fortune in contentment, not in birth. 72.28b The (/ðə/) the wise (/waɪz/) wise man (/man/) man findeth (/ˈfaɪndəθ/) find-3SG his (/hɪz/) his fortune (/ˈfɔːrtjuːn/) fortune in (/ɪn/) in contentment, (/kənˈtɛntmənt/) contentment not (/nɒt/) not in (/ɪn/) in birth (/bɛːrθ/) birth

72.29a Yet I would finde the truth, though all the world should turn against me. 72.29b Yet (/jɛt/) yet I (/aɪ/) I would (/wʊd/) would finde (/faɪnd/) find the (/ðə/) the truth, (/truːθ/) truth though (/ðoː/) though all (/ɔːl/) all the (/ðə/) the world (/wɛːrld/) world should (/ʃʊd/) should turn (/tɛːrn/) turn against (/əˈgɛːnst/) against me (/miː/) me

72.30a Go then, and may heaven grant thou finde what thy heart seeketh. 72.30b Go (/goː/) go-IMP then, (/ðɛn/) then and (/and/) and may (/mɛɪ/) may heaven (/ˈhɛvən/) heaven grant (/graːnt/) grant thou (/ðaʊ/) thou finde (/faɪnd/) find-SUBJ what (/hwat/) what thy (/ðaɪ/) thy heart (/haːrt/) heart seeketh (/ˈsiːkəθ/) seek-3SG

Part B: Natural Sentences

72.16 Margery, I have found it! The letter my father hid! “Margery, I have found it! The letter my father hid!”

72.17 What findest thou written therein, young master? “What do you find written there, young master?”

72.18 I finde here such strange information as doth confound me. “I find here such strange information as confounds me.”

72.19 Tell me, good nurse, for I finde myself most perplexed. “Tell me, good nurse, for I find myself most confused.”

72.20 My father’s letter speaks of a secret I never found till now. “My father’s letter speaks of a secret I never discovered until now.”

72.21 Alas, I feared this day would come when thou shouldst finde the truth. “Alas, I feared this day would come when you would find the truth.”

72.22 It says he found me as an infant abandon’d by the road. “It says he found me as an infant abandoned by the road.”

72.23 Then am I no true son of this house, but a foundling? “Then am I no true son of this house, but a foundling?”

72.24 Thou art found and loved, which is more than many born in silk can say. “You are found and loved, which is more than many born in silk can say.”

72.25 I must finde my true parents, whoever they may prove to be. “I must find my true parents, whoever they may prove to be.”

72.26 What if thou findest them base and poor? Wilt thou love them still? “What if you find them lowborn and poor? Will you still love them?”

72.27 Blood findeth blood, they say. I shall know them by instinct. “Blood finds blood, they say. I shall know them by instinct.”

72.28 The wise man findeth his fortune in contentment, not in birth. “The wise man finds his fortune in contentment, not in birth.”

72.29 Yet I would finde the truth, though all the world should turn against me. “Yet I would find the truth, though all the world should turn against me.”

72.30 Go then, and may heaven grant thou finde what thy heart seeketh. “Go then, and may heaven grant you find what your heart seeks.”

Part C: Elizabethan Text Only

72.16 Margery, I have found it! The letter my father hid!

72.17 What findest thou written therein, young master?

72.18 I finde here such strange information as doth confound me.

72.19 Tell me, good nurse, for I finde myself most perplexed.

72.20 My father’s letter speaks of a secret I never found till now.

72.21 Alas, I feared this day would come when thou shouldst finde the truth.

72.22 It says he found me as an infant abandon’d by the road.

72.23 Then am I no true son of this house, but a foundling?

72.24 Thou art found and loved, which is more than many born in silk can say.

72.25 I must finde my true parents, whoever they may prove to be.

72.26 What if thou findest them base and poor? Wilt thou love them still?

72.27 Blood findeth blood, they say. I shall know them by instinct.

72.28 The wise man findeth his fortune in contentment, not in birth.

72.29 Yet I would finde the truth, though all the world should turn against me.

72.30 Go then, and may heaven grant thou finde what thy heart seeketh.

Part D: Grammar Notes for Genre Section

This dramatic dialogue demonstrates several characteristic features of Elizabethan dramatic discourse. The discovery trope (the “foundling” revelation) drives the scene, making “find/found” thematically central.

Note the consistent use of the thou/thee forms between Edmund and Margery, appropriate to their relationship of young master and aged family retainer. Margery’s use of “thou” to Edmund shows both familiarity (she nursed him) and social deference (he remains “young master”).

The construction “as doth confound me” (72.18) shows the relative “as” with auxiliary “doth” — a pattern common in formal Elizabethan prose and dramatic verse. Modern English would prefer “that confounds me.”

The term “foundling” (72.23) derives directly from “found” — one who has been found, i.e., an abandoned child discovered and raised by others. This plays on the dual sense of “find” throughout the scene.

The subjunctive “thou finde” in line 72.30 (following “may heaven grant”) shows the use of the uninflected stem in subordinate clauses of wish or possibility — a pattern largely lost in Modern English.

The proverbial “Blood findeth blood” (72.27) reflects Elizabethan beliefs about kinship recognition, the idea that family members will instinctively recognize one another.

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PRONUNCIATION GUIDE

Key Words from This Lesson:

finde /faɪnd/ — the diphthong is similar to modern “find” findest /ˈfaɪndɪst/ — stress on first syllable, “-est” is /ɪst/ findeth /ˈfaɪndəθ/ — stress on first syllable, “-eth” is /əθ/ found /faʊnd/ — past tense, similar to modern foundling /ˈfaʊndlɪŋ/ — one who is found, an abandoned child

Period Pronunciation Features:

The “-tion” suffix: Words like information, condition, perfection, satisfaction, occasion were pronounced with /sɪən/ (”see-on”) rather than modern /ʃən/ (”shun”):

• information /ɪnfɔːrˈmɛːsɪən/

• condition /kənˈdɪsɪən/

• perfection /pərˈfɛksɪən/

• satisfaction /satɪsˈfaksɪən/

• occasion /əˈkɛːzɪən/

The “wh-” cluster: Words like what, when, which, why began with /hw-/ not /w-/:

• what /hwat/

• when /hwɛn/

• which /hwɪtʃ/

• why /hwaɪ/

Rhotic ‘r’: The letter ‘r’ was pronounced in all positions, giving words like “father,” “letter,” and “heart” a fuller sound:

• father /ˈfaːðər/

• letter /ˈlɛtər/

• heart /haːrt/

Common Errors to Avoid:

Pronouncing “findeth” as two syllables /faɪnθ/ — it has three syllables /ˈfaɪndəθ/

Using modern “-tion” pronunciation — remember /sɪən/ not /ʃən/

Dropping the ‘r’ in words like “perplexed” or “information” — maintain full rhoticity

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ABOUT THIS COURSE

This Elizabethan English course follows the Latinum Institute methodology, developed since 2006 for autodidact language learners. The interlinear construed text format allows readers to process Early Modern English systematically, word by word, building comprehension through granular analysis rather than approximate translation.

Why Study Elizabethan English?

The language of Shakespeare, Marlowe, Jonson, and the King James Bible remains central to English literary heritage. Understanding Early Modern English pronunciation and grammar unlocks not merely comprehension but appreciation — hearing the puns, rhymes, and rhythms as original audiences did.

The Construed Text Method:

By presenting each word with its pronunciation and gloss, the construed text method allows the learner to build direct associations between Elizabethan forms and their meanings. This approach, proven effective for classical languages, works equally well for historical varieties of English that differ significantly from modern usage.

Original Pronunciation:

This course incorporates the latest scholarship on Original Pronunciation (OP), drawing on the work of David Crystal and other historical linguists. Hearing Shakespeare’s English as Shakespeare’s actors spoke it reveals wordplay, rhymes, and rhythmic effects invisible to modern readers.

Course Index:

https://latinum.substack.com/p/index

Reviews: https://uk.trustpilot.com/review/latinum.org.uk

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✓ Lesson 72 Elizabethan English complete